tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-50844434253167684352024-03-05T23:35:03.921-08:00Stacie E Hebert, LMSW - Licensed Master Social Worker<br>
Contact Me! stacieehebert [at] gmail [dot] com
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SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.comBlogger165125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-90128448894536676272014-02-05T09:52:00.001-08:002014-02-05T09:52:21.147-08:00Healthcare Reform is working as planned, with good reason, as it will reduce the (slave/forced) labor force by 2.5 million<br />
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<br /> <span style="background-color: white; font-family: nyt-cheltenham-sh, georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; line-height: 20px;">Health Care Law Projected to Cut the Labor Force</span></h3>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; line-height: 28.75px;">WASHINGTON — A Congressional Budget Office analysis released Tuesday predicted that the Affordable Care Act would shrink the work force by the equivalent of more than two million full-time positions. </span><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/05/us/politics/budget-office-revises-estimates-of-health-care-enrollment.html?_r=0" style="font-family: georgia, 'times new roman', times, serif; line-height: 28.75px;" target="_blank"> NY Times</a> </blockquote>
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<span style="font-size: small;">No, CBO did not say Obamacare will kill 2 million jobs</span></h3>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #2c2c2c; font-family: Georgia, serif; line-height: 26px;">The Fact Checker had to repeatedly explain that the Congressional Budget Office never said that the Affordable Care Act “killed” 800,000 jobs by 2021. Now, the CBO has released </span><a href="http://cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/45010-Outlook2014.pdf" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(212, 212, 212); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #005b88; font-family: Georgia, serif; line-height: 26px; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">an updated estimate</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #2c2c2c; font-family: Georgia, serif; line-height: 26px;">, nearly the triple the size of the earlier one: 2.3 million in 2021. </span> <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/fact-checker/wp/2014/02/04/no-cbo-did-not-say-obamacare-will-kill-2-million-jobs/" target="_blank">The Washington Post. FACT CHECKER: The Truth Behind the Rhetoric</a></blockquote>
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Healthcare Reform is working as planned and it's fantastic news for our country and our people. The CBO (congressional budget office) projects that 2.5 million full-time positions in the next ten years. <br />
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Because workers will CHOOSE NOT TO WORK FULL-TIME. <br />
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In my educated opinion, this is a totally healthy choice from a mental health and self-care perspective. So many people feel forced to get and keep jobs that they don't want, are bad for them, and don't even need to be full-time positions. Probably a third of full-time job hours are spent by employees not working, simply because they have to be there, it's a stable job, and they can't afford to leave the job because they need health care and so do their children and/or spouses. <br />
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That's one of the purposes of this reform measure, to reform the system away from this quid-pro-quo situation that is simply taken for granted now. FT work means benefits and a salary, and that also lots of times means working over-time for no extra pay. We want people to HAVE more choice so that they AREN'T tied to their jobs because they need healthcare and insurance!<br />
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Corporations and the power-brokers in Washington want you to have less choice and to keep you as a slave to their needs. Opponents of the ACA, who derisively call it Obamacare (namely GOP Republicans) will spin this as bad for "business" and the economy and for people in general. <br />
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But, it's fantastic for everyone - individuals, families, children, for the job market, especially job seekers, and anyone who values being able to have control over their own lives. Congratulations, Americans, we are finally doing what's right and best for us. Let's keep it up!SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-86427873800469341852013-03-20T14:32:00.000-07:002013-03-20T14:32:09.383-07:00ASWB License Exam - Cognitive and Behavioral Theories<br />
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From Wikipedia article, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#Clinical_theories_and_interventions" target="_blank">Clinical Theories and Interventions</a></i>:<br />
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Behavioral_and_cognitive_behavioral">Behavioral and cognitive behavioral</span></h4>
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Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive behavioral therapy</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_therapy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Behavior therapy">Behavior therapy</a></div>
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Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) developed from the combination of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_therapy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitive therapy">cognitive therapy</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_emotive_behavior_therapy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rational emotive behavior therapy">rational emotive behavior therapy</a>, both of which grew out of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>. CBT is based on the theory that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion), and how we act (behavior) are related and interact together in complex ways. In this perspective, certain dysfunctional ways of interpreting and appraising the world (often through <i>schemas</i> or <i>beliefs</i>) can contribute to emotional distress or result in behavioral problems. The object of many cognitive behavioral therapies is to discover and identify the biased, dysfunctional ways of relating or reacting and through different methodologies help clients transcend these in ways that will lead to increased well-being.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-52" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[52]</a></sup> There are many techniques used, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_desensitization" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Systematic desensitization">systematic desensitization</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_questioning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Socratic questioning">socratic questioning</a>, and keeping a cognition observation log. Modified approaches that fall into the category of CBT have also developed, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectical_behavior_therapy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dialectical behavior therapy">dialectical behavior therapy</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness-based_cognitive_therapy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy">mindfulness-based cognitive therapy</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-53" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[53]</a></sup></div>
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Behavior therapy is a rich tradition. It is well-researched with a strong evidence base. Its roots are in behaviorism. In behavior therapy, environmental events predict the way we think and feel. Our behavior sets up conditions for the environment to feed back on it. Sometimes the feedback leads the behavior to increase (reinforcement), and sometimes the behavior decreases (punishment). Oftentimes behavior therapists are called <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_behavior_analyst" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Applied behavior analyst">applied behavior analysts</a>. They have studied many areas from developmental disabilities to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety_disorders" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Anxiety disorders">anxiety disorders</a>. In the area of mental health and addictions a recent article looked at APA's list for well-established and promising practices and found a considerable number of them based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-54" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-54" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[54]</a></sup> Multiple assessment techniques have come from this approach including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_analysis_(psychology)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Functional analysis (psychology)">functional analysis (psychology)</a>, which has found a strong focus in the school system. In addition, multiple intervention programs have come from this tradition including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_reinforcement_and_family_training" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Community reinforcement and family training">community reinforcement and family training</a> for treating addictions, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance_and_commitment_therapy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Acceptance and commitment therapy">acceptance and commitment therapy</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_analytic_psychotherapy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Functional analytic psychotherapy">functional analytic psychotherapy</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrative_behavioral_couples_therapy" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080;" title="Integrative behavioral couples therapy">integrative behavioral couples therapy</a> including dialectical behavior therapy and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_activation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Behavioral activation">behavioral activation</a>. In addition, specific techniques such as<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency_management" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Contingency management">contingency management</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_therapy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Exposure therapy">exposure therapy</a> have come from this tradition.</div>
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From elsewhere on my blogger site:</div>
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Behavioral Theory / Behaviorism (WATSON, SKINNER)</h4>
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<a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/08/behavioral-theory-behaviorism.html" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">Behavioral Theory (Behaviorism)</a> , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">Behaviorism</a> , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_therapy" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">Behavior Therapy</a><br />We practice with human beings in their <em>social</em> environments, so this comment from one of the founding fathers of Behaviorism speaks volumes about the causes of human behavior, as well as methods we can employ to assist them in changing those very things that challenge them:</div>
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<i>Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. </i>--John Watson, 1930</blockquote>
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Behavioral theory is based on the belief that <strong>our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our behaviors</strong>. There are two major types of conditioning that produce behavior: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;"><strong>Operant conditioning</strong></a><strong> - a method of learning that occurs through rewards (</strong><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/reinforcement.htm" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;"><strong>reinforcements</strong></a><strong>) and </strong><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/punishment.htm" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;"><strong>punishments</strong></a><strong> for behavior, and </strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;"><strong>Classical (Pavlovian or Respondent) Conditioning</strong></a><strong>) where a stimulus is paired with a response to produce a behavior.</strong> See also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">Behaviorism on Wikipedia</a>.</div>
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Its roots are in behaviorism. In behavior therapy, environmental events predict the way we think and feel. Our behavior sets up conditions for the environment to feed back on it. Sometimes the feedback leads the behavior to increase (reinforcement), and sometimes the behavior decreases (punishment).<br /><strong></strong></div>
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<strong>Theorists in Behaviorism: </strong><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/pavlov.htm" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">Ivan Pavlov</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_skinner.htm" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">B. F. Skinner</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesmz/p/edward-thorndike.htm" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">Edward Thorndike</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/watson.htm" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">John B. Watson</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesal/p/clark-hull.htm" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">Clark Hull</a> .</div>
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Cognitive Theory (<span style="color: #004080;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Beck" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">BECK</a></span>) and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy / CBT (MICHENBAUM)</h4>
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grew out of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">cognitive psychology</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">behaviorism</a>. CBT is based on the theory that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion), and how we act (behavior) are related and interact together. Dysfunctional ways of interpreting and appraising the world (often through <i>schemas</i> or <i>beliefs</i>) can contribute to emotional distress or result in behavioral problems. Behavior will follow one’s thoughts and reasoning about the world, so thoughts are the target of change. Therapy might include worksheets to record distressing cognitions, in order to dispute and reframe them into more realistic, less threatening positive thoughts. Taking action itself will also in some cases help to disprove unrealistic beliefs that we act on, causing negative consequences for our self-esteem and relationships. Focus is on making changes in how one thinks and acts. The object of many cognitive behavioral therapies is to discover and identify the biased, dysfunctional ways of relating or reacting and through different methodologies help clients transcend these in ways that will lead to increased well-being.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-49" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">[50]</a></sup> There are many techniques used, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_desensitization" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">systematic desensitization</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_questioning" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">socratic questioning</a>, and keeping a cognition observation log. Modified approaches that fall into the category of CBT have also developed, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectical_behavior_therapy" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">dialectical behavior therapy</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness-based_cognitive_therapy" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">mindfulness-based cognitive therapy</a>.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-50" style="color: #015782; text-decoration: none;">[51]</a></sup></div>
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SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-88899695539372791992013-03-20T14:30:00.002-07:002013-03-20T14:30:45.702-07:00ASWB License Exam - Learning Theories<br />
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<b>Learning theory</b> may refer to:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Learning theory (education)">Learning theory (education)</a>, the process of how humans learn<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behaviorism_(learning_theory)&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Behaviorism (learning theory) (page does not exist)">Behaviorism</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(learning_theory)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitivism (learning theory)">Cognitivism</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanism_(learning_theory)&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Humanism (learning theory) (page does not exist)">Humanism</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">Constructivism</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivism_(learning_theory)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Connectivism (learning theory)">Connectivism</a></li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li>
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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<b>Learning theories</b> are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_framework" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Conceptual framework">conceptual frameworks</a> that describe how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Learning">learning</a>. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed, and knowledge and skills retained.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup></div>
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Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Operant conditioning">conditioning</a> and will advocate a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators who embrace <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(learning_theory)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitivism (learning theory)">cognitive theory</a> believe that the definition of learning as a change in behavior is too narrow and prefer to study the learner rather than her environment, and in particular the complexities of human <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Memory">memory</a>. Those who advocate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">constructivism</a> believe that a learner's ability to learn relies to a large extent on what he already knows and understands, and that the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction. Transformative learning theory focuses upon the often-necessary change that is required in a learner's preconceptions and world view.</div>
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Outside the realm of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Educational psychology">educational psychology</a>, techniques to directly observe the functioning of the brain during the learning process, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event-related_potential" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Event-related potential">event-related potential</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a>, are used in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Educational neuroscience">educational neuroscience</a>. As of 2012, such studies are beginning to support a theory of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_multiple_intelligences" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Theory of multiple intelligences">multiple intelligences</a>, where learning is seen as the interaction between dozens of different functional areas in the brain, each with their own individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular human learner.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="John B. Watson">John Watson</a> (1878–1959) coined the term "behaviorism." Watson believed that theorizing thoughts, intentions or other subjective experiences was unscientific and insisted that psychology must focus on measurable behaviors.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup> For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 19.09090805053711px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learning_theory_(education)&action=edit&section=3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Conditioning">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Conditioning">Conditioning</span></h4>
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There are two types of conditioning:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Classical conditioning">Classical conditioning</a>, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a>, where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment.</li>
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Classical conditioning was noticed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> when he saw that if dogs come to associate the delivery of food with a white lab coat or with the ringing of a bell, they will produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of food. Classical conditioning regards this form of learning to be the same whether in dogs or in humans.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Operant conditioning">Operant conditioning</a>, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_behaviorism" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Radical behaviorism">radical behaviorism</a>, reinforces this behavior with a reward or a punishment. A reward increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, a punishment decreases its likelihood.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup></div>
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Behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, and will arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral objectives, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competency-based_learning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Competency-based learning">Competency-based learning</a>, and skill development and training.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Smith_1999_6-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-Smith_1999-6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup> Educational approaches such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Applied behavior analysis">applied behavior analysis</a>, curriculum-based measurement, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_instruction" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Direct instruction">direct instruction</a> have emerged from this model.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 19.09090805053711px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learning_theory_(education)&action=edit&section=4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Cognitivism">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Cognitivism">Cognitivism</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism (psychology)</a></div>
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Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology, developed in Germany in the early 1900s and brought to America in the 1920s. The German word <i>gestalt</i> is roughly equivalent to the English <i>configuration</i> or<i>pattern</i> and emphasizes the whole of human experience.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-8" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup> Over the years, the Gestalt psychologists provided demonstrations and described principles to explain the way we organize our sensations into perceptions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-9" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></sup></div>
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Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. They propose looking at the patterns rather than isolated events.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-10" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a></sup> Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled <i>cognitive theories</i>. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to consider how human memory works to promote learning, and an understanding of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_term_memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Short term memory">short term memory</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_term_memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Long term memory">long term memory</a> is important to educators influenced by cognitive theory.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-11" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</a></sup> They view learning as an internal mental process (including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insight" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Insight">insight</a>, information processing, memory and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Perception">perception</a>) where the educator focuses on building intelligence and cognitive development.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Smith_1999_6-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-Smith_1999-6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup> The individual learner is more important than the environment.</div>
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Once memory theories like the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson-Shiffrin_memory_model" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-12" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup> and Baddeley's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Working memory">working memory</a>model<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-13" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a></sup> were established as a theoretical framework in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a>, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_load" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitive load">cognitive load</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Information processing">information processing</a> theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Instructional design">instructional design</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-14" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup> Cognitive theory is used to explain such topics as social role acquisition, intelligence and memory as related to age.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 19.09090805053711px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learning_theory_(education)&action=edit&section=5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Constructivism">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Constructivism">Constructivism</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">Constructivism (learning theory)</a></div>
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Built on the work of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jerome Bruner">Jerome Bruner</a>, constructivism emphasizes the importance of the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves, and building new ideas or concepts based upon current knowledge and past experience. It asks why students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook. To design effective teaching environments, it believes, one needs a good understanding of what children already know when they come into the classroom. The curriculum should be designed in a way that builds on what the pupil already knows and is allowed to develop with them.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-15" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></sup> Begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while solving these problems.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-16" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[16]</a></sup> This requires an understanding of children's cognitive development, and constructivism draws heavily on psychological studies of cognitive development.</div>
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The learning theories of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Montessori" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Marie Montessori">Marie Montessori</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kolb" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="David Kolb">David Kolb</a> serve as the foundation of constructivist learning theory.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-17" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">Constructivism</a> has many varieties: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Active learning">Active learning</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_learning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Discovery learning">discovery learning</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_building" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Knowledge building">knowledge building</a> are three, but all versions promote a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_note-18" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[18]</a></sup> The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(learning_theory)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitivism (learning theory)">Cognitivism (learning theory)</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Constructivism (learning theory)">Constructivism (learning theory)</a></li>
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SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-50610434007158431132013-03-20T13:59:00.001-07:002013-03-20T14:04:26.001-07:00ASWB License Exam- Community Development TheoriesRelated to Group Theories<br />
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Also see the <a href="http://www.infed.org/community/index.htm" target="_blank">Infed.org article on Community Development</a><br />
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From an <a href="http://www.evergreen.edu/rad/RAManual/section2.2combuild.htm" target="_blank">article for resident assistants at Evergreen State College</a><br />
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In the field of student affairs and organizational leadership, there are a number of community development theories that may help you better understand the dynamics and changes a community experiences over a period of time. </div>
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The following theories are covered in this section:</div>
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<li>Group Behavior (Lewin, 1952)</li>
<li>Marginality and Mattering (Schlossberg, 1989)</li>
<li>The 6 I's of Community Development (Kamhi and Thompson, 1997; Minor & Schroeder, 1998)</li>
<li>Stages of Community (Peck, 1987)</li>
<li>Group Development (Tuckman, 1965)</li>
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<b>Group Behavior (Lewin, 1952)</b></h5>
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The outcome of Lewin's research in the 1950s can be simplified to this: "People support what they help create." Students are far more likely to accept and support ideas and change if they participated in the decision-making process or helped conceive the idea in the first place. The implications of Lewin's research for our work in the residence halls is to involve students in the creation and maintenance of their communities. Essentially, your residents are more likely to want to participate positively to and support the community if they feel they helped to create it. </div>
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involve residents in the community in a number of ways, including:</div>
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<li>At the start of the year asking your residents to create a "community covenant" (similar to the covenants you may have created in the classroom)</li>
<li>Encouraging residents to participate in campus and housing leadership organizations, like the Greener Organization, NRHH or the Geoduck Student Union</li>
<li>Ask residents to help you plan programs! Seek their input for ideas, give them tasks, and encourage them to host events in their spaces</li>
</ul>
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<b>Marginality and Mattering (Schlossberg, 1989)</b></h5>
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Schlossberg (1989) theorized that the success or failure of a student's transition (e.g. from their hometown to Evergreen) is directly related to the level to which they feel they matter in their new environment. In this model, mattering is the feeling that one belongs and matters to others; marginality is the feeling that one does not fit in. If a student feels they belong in the community or at the institution, Schlossberg proposed they are more likely to be successful and persist in their education. If a student feels marginalized, however, they may be unable to perform at their usual ability level and their success at the institution is compromised. Students who feel marginalized are also more likely to leave the community and/or institution.</div>
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Schlossberg (1989) found students feel like they matter when they are noticed in positive ways and feel cared about, needed and appreciated by others.<b> </b>As a Resident Assistant, you can help students feel like they matter in a number of ways, including:</div>
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<li>Learn the names and important information about all of your residents within the first few weeks of the term. Being able to recall this information in conversation will make individuals feel like someone at the institution notices them and cares</li>
<li>Seek out specific residents for their talents and involve them in the community. For example, "Hey Carol, I noticed your sketches hanging around your room. You're really talented! Can you help me with this poster for an upcoming program?"</li>
<li>Talk to residents one-on-one and express care for them when you are concerned about them. This will show someone at the institution cares and notices them.</li>
</ul>
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<b>The Carnegie Foundation’s Six Principles of Community (1990)</b></h6>
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The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching initiated a study on campus communities in 1990. The foundation defined six principles they believed were essential to any college community:</div>
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<li><b>Purposeful</b>: A place where faculty, students, staff and administration share in their living experience to strengthen each resident’s experience. Where each students is encouraged to be creative, not conforming, and inspired to go on learning long after college. Where relationships are formed and grow.</li>
<li><b>Open</b>: A place where freedom of expression is uncompromisingly protected and civility is powerfully affirmed. Where integrity is expressed through the use of symbols, both written and oral. Where there is freedom of action and speech, but not at the expense of others.</li>
<li><b>Just</b>: A place where the sacredness of the person is honored and diversity is aggressively pursued. Where prejudicial judgments are rejected, diversity is celebrated, and each member’s needs are taken into consideration. A place where racial, ethical, and religious differences are honored and celebrated.</li>
<li><b>Disciplined</b>: A place where individuals accept their obligation to the community and where well-adjusted governance procedures guide behavior for the common good. Where residents are informed of appropriate rules/policies and standards so that they can live up to them.</li>
<li><b>Caring</b>: Where the well being of each member is sensitively supported and where service to others is encouraged. Where residents learn to relate to each other in healthy and appropriate ways. Where residents discover the reality of their dependence on each other and understand the benefits of both giving and the whole overall Residence Life experience.</li>
<li><b>Celebrative</b>: Where the heritage of the college is remembered and where rituals affirming both tradition and change are widely shared. Where through ceremonies and traditions students gain a sense of belonging to something worthwhile and enduring. Where students feel connected to the campus community as well as their individual hall communities through both formal and informal celebrations.</li>
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You may notice that the six principles influenced Residential and Dining Services' mission statement and Evergreen's Social Contract. These principles help us define what kind of community we would like to create in our collective work.</div>
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<b>The 6 I's of Community Development (Kamhi and Thompson, 1997; </b><b>Minor & Schroeder, 1998)</b></h6>
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The term <i>authentic community</i> describes one model of a healthy, or true, community. According to this model numerous elements are involved in fostering a sense of authentic community. The most fundamental components include similar interests, common purpose, peer influence, social interaction, stability, and self-determination. Also, community is nurtured when members collaborate to create their own standards and commit themselves to maintaining satisfactory interactions among members through personal contact, not through rules and regulations (Schroeder, 1998).</div>
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Authentic communities are present when the group exhibits the six I's: Introduction, Interaction, Involvement, Influence, Investment, and Identity<i>:</i></div>
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<li><b>Introduction</b>: “When students enter a new community, they are unfamiliar with the physical setting, policies, and practices. Older members of the community, or those in a position of authority, are responsible for welcoming, orienting, and teaching the norms, values and rules of the community, to the new members” (Minor, 1993).</li>
<li><b>Interaction</b>: “Interaction provides residents the opportunity to bond together by sharing common experiences. As students interact, they are exposed to differing levels of development, knowledge, and experiences that allow them to both teach and learn" (Minor, 1998).</li>
<li><b>Involvement</b>: “A true community encourages, expects, and rewards member involvement characterized by a high degree of interaction, with students, not staff, assuming a multitude of roles…Everyone is important and everyone is needed" (Schroeder, 1998).</li>
<li><b>Influence</b>: “Control is vested in members. [Members expect] to develop a social contract whereby group standards are affirmed, both individually and collectively… Students feel important, their perspective is valued, their contributions are essential to the welfare of the group” (Schroeder, 1998).</li>
<li><b>Investment</b>: “Students care about one another and their group” (Schroeder, 1998). Interactions between members are characterized by gentle confrontation. The members appreciate the need for open, honest communication, and rewards are provided</li>
<li><b>Identity</b>: “[Communities] characterized by a high degree of identity are ones that focus on transcendent values. Students in such [groups] have shared symbols. Members describe themselves in collective terms such as we and us, not I and they, thereby reflecting their emphasis on common purposes and unity" (Schroeder, 1998)</li>
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As a Resident Assistant, you help create authentic communities in several ways, including:</div>
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<li>Welcoming new students into the community and orienting them to the Evergreen campus</li>
<li>Role modeling positive and healthy behaviors</li>
<li>Providing opportunities for students to interact and build interpersonal relationships</li>
<li>Encouraging residents to be involved on-campus</li>
<li>Helping your residents create a community covenant</li>
<li>Helping your residents develop the skills to confront each other constructively (for example, encouraging a resident to ask their neighbor to turn down the music instead of calling for an RA)</li>
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<b>Stages of Community (Peck, 1987)</b></h6>
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Imagine the concept of each group or organization you’re in as a community. Individuals function concurrently in many different kinds of communities. Thinking of each of your formal and informal groups as a community provides a frame for the interdependence of the RA and their residents. </div>
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Knowing about community, philosophically believing in the worth of community, and being skilled at developing and sustaining community are essential aspects of the RA position. Realistically, perfect communities rarely happen. We all live, attend class, work, and learn in imperfect communities, which, when they are striving to be better, become supportive environments for individual and group growth.</div>
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Based on his experience with community building workshops, Peck says that community building typically goes through four stages:</div>
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<li><b>Stage One - Pseudocommunity: </b> In this stage a group may feel like things are just fine, people seem to be getting along, relationships are courteous, but it is in reality a superficial, underdeveloped level of community. Conflict is avoided and seen as wholly negative.</li>
<li><b>Stage Two - Chaos:</b> When pseudocommunity fails to work, the community experiences chaos as different members begin to openly vent their frustrations and disagreements. In this stage, community members realize that differences cannot simply be ignored or conflict avoided. Chaos is a challenging stage that makes many people just want to give up - but really it is the first step towards an authentic community.</li>
<li><b>Stage Three - Emptiness:</b> Community members learn to empty themselves of ego-related factors and embrace the needs of the group. The needs of the individual are balanced with the needs of the community. </li>
<li><b>Stage Four - Authentic or True Community:</b> In this stage individuals grant each other empathy and understanding. </li>
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Many groups never get past pseudocommunity and find ways to courteously interact and get their work done. That may be sufficient for their purposes, but ongoing groups like residents that are doing difficult task of attending college would benefit from recognizing Peck’s stages and work towards “authentic residential community. “</div>
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Residential communities that engage in this developmental process and reach a stage of authentically functioning as a community often error by not recognizing that being a community is a process, not an end state. Communities are not static - they constantly change! New residents join the group, external crises cause new levels or types of conflict, and key residents leave who had been instrumental to nurturing community. Communities and RAs must recognize when they need to attend to the cycle of rebuilding a genuine community.</div>
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<b>Group Development (Tuckman, 1965)</b></h6>
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Through understanding the stages of group development, leaders are able to asses the needs, plan the direction and prepare for the future of the group. Also, understanding the theory of group development aids leaders in determining realistic expectations about group behavior.</div>
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According to the Tuckman Model of Group Development, a group’s growth is:</div>
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<li>Sequential: Stages occur in a specifically stated order</li>
<li>Developmental: Issues and concerns in each stage must be resolved in order for the group to move to the next stage.</li>
<li>Thematic: Each stage is characterized by two dominant themes, one reflecting the task dimension and one reflecting the relationship dimension.</li>
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The five stages are as follows:</div>
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<li><b>Forming:</b> Task behavior is an attempt to become oriented to the goals and procedures of the group. Relationship issues revolve around resolving dependency issues and testing, which can be sped up by making leadership roles clear and getting the group acquainted. In this stage, information and structure are critical.</li>
<li><b>Storming</b>: In this stage, participants are resistant to task demands and members challenge the group's leadership. Excessive storming leads to anxiety and tension whereas suppressed storming leads to resentment and bitterness. Leaders should provide clarification about roles and helping the group build conflict management skills are key.</li>
<li><b>Norming</b>: This stage is characterized by cooperation. Task themes include communication and expression while cohesion is the relationship theme. Teambuilding efforts increase group unity and increase shared responsibility</li>
<li><b>Performing:</b> At this stage, the group is functioning efficiently to achieve group goals. Group members will assume roles that are necessary to achieve goals, learning independence with dependence. It is beneficial to encourage a continued developmental theme for the group to stimulate new problems for their problem solving.</li>
<li><b>Mourning</b>: At this stage, the group comes to the realization that they will not be functioning together as a group for much longer. Teambuilding efforts should be towards giving the group a sense of closure and allowing the opportunity to reflect on the time spent together.</li>
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SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-3822651881724537072013-03-20T13:45:00.005-07:002013-03-20T13:52:23.406-07:00ASWB License Exam - Group TheoriesAlso see an excellent article called <a href="http://www.infed.org/groupwork/what_is_a_group.htm" target="_blank"><i>What is a Group?</i> on Infed.org</a><br />
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From <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work_with_groups" target="_blank">Social Work with Groups in Wikipedia</a></h2>
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[T]here have been numerous philosophical and theoretical influences on the development of social group work. Chief amongst these influences are the ethics of Judeo-Christian religions; the settlement house movement’s charitable and humanitarian efforts; theories eminent in progressive education, especially those of <a class="external text" href="http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-dewey.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">John Dewey</a> (1910); sociological theories about the nature of the relationship between man and society, i.e. Mead (1934); the democratic ethic articulated by early social philosophers; the psychoanalytic theories of Rank and Freud; the practice wisdom, theory building, educational and research efforts of early social group workers (Alissi, 1980; Kaiser, 1958; Wilson, 1976). Early theoretical, research and practice efforts of Grace Coyle (1930, 1935, 1937, 1947, 1948), Wilber Newstetter (1935), and Neva Boyd (1935) paved the way for the advancement and development of social group work.</div>
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<a class="external text" href="http://www.infed.org/thinkers/coyle.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">Grace Coyle</a> presented an early theoretical framework for social group work articulating the need for a democratic value base (Coyle, 1935), identifying the role of the worker as a group builder (Coyle, 1937) and noting the benefits of ‘esprit de corps’ or group morale (Coyle, 1930). As the editor of several small group research compendiums Hare (1976) would later point out, “many of her insights about group process were ahead of her time” (p. 388).</div>
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The work of Vinter and Schwartz and their respective associates would dominate the group work scene for much of this decade and the next (Galinsky & Schopler, 1974). In Vinter’s approach (1967) the treatment group is thought of as a small social system “whose influences can be planfully guided to modify client behavior” (p. 4). In this approach the worker takes a central position in providing treatment, interventions are planned, group process is highly structured, and great emphasis is given to outcome evaluation and research (Vinter, 1967; Garvin, 1987; Galinsky & Schopler, 1974). Schwartz (1961) proposed his vision of the small group as an enterprise in mutual aid.</div>
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In 1965 Bernstein and colleagues introduced another social group work practice theory (Bernstein, 1978; Lowy, 1978; Garland, Kolodney & Jones, 1978). The centerpiece of the edited collection was a developmental stage model, known as the Boston Model, which presented a framework for understanding how groups navigate degrees of emotional closeness over time (Bernstein, 1978; Garland, Kolodney & Jones, 1978). In 1966 Papell and Rothman (1966) presented a typology of social group work that included the social goals model (in the tradition of Coyle), the remedial model (as developed by Vinter) and the reciprocal model (as articulated by Schwartz). In 1968 Middleman (1968) made a seminal contribution in articulating an approach to group work practice that utilized non-verbal activities. In 1976 Roberts and Northen presented a collection of ten group work practice theories (Roberts & Northen, 1976) further illustrating the diversity of approaches to group practice.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="The_mutual_aid_model">The mutual aid model</span></h3>
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The Mutual Aid Model of group work practice (Gitterman, 2004) has its roots in the practice theory proposed by William Schwartz (1961) which was introduced in the article, “The Social Worker in the Group”. Schwartz (1961) envisioned the group as an</div>
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“enterprise in mutual aid, an alliance of individuals who need each other in varying degrees, to work on certain common problems” (p.266).</div>
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Schwartz elaborated:</div>
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“the fact is that this is a helping system in which clients need each other as well as the worker. This need to use each other, to create not one but many helping relationships, is a vital ingredient of the group process and constitutes a need over and above the specific tasks for which the group was formed” (1961, p. 266).</div>
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While referred to as social group work (Papell & Rothman,1966), Schwartz preferred to think of this model as social work with groups (Schwartz, 1976). Schwartz (1976) regarded this approach as resonant with the demands of a variety of group types including, natural and formed; therapeutic and task; open and closed; and voluntary and mandatory. Schwartz (1961, 1964) initially thought of this approach as an organic systems model (as he viewed the group as an organic whole) later to refer to it as the mediating model and then the interactionist model (Schwartz, 1977). The model initially proposed by Schwartz has been further developed most notably by Lawrence Shulman and Alex Gitterman, who have since referred to this model as the Mutual Aid Model (Gitterman, 2004, 2005; Shulman, 1979, 1992, 1999, 2005b).</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 19.09090805053711px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_work_with_groups&action=edit&section=12" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Cognitive-behavioral group work">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Cognitive-behavioral_group_work">Cognitive-behavioral group work</span></h3>
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The Cognitive-Behavioral Group Work Model is recognized as influential contemporary group work practice approach (Rose, 2004). The approach suggested by Rose (1989, 2004) integrates cognitive and behavioral interventions with small group strategies. While primacy is not placed on establishing the group as a mutual aid system in quite the same way as with the Mutual Aid Model, Rose (2004) suggests the worker promote group discussion and member interaction. Furthermore, drawing upon Yalom’s Therapeutic Factor construct Rose (2004) points out the benefits of universality, altruism, and group cohesion as well as mutual reinforcement, factors which are conceptually resonant with mutual aid.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Group_work_with_mandated_members">Group work with mandated members</span></h3>
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The involuntary client can be understood as someone who is pressured by some external source to seek social services (Rooney and Chovanec, 2004). Mandated involuntary clients are pressured to seek services as a result of the legal system (Rooney & Chovanec, 2004). Rooney and Chovanec (2004) identify reactance theory as an explanatory framework for the attitude and behaviors of the involuntary client and the mandated involuntary client. Reactance theory suggests that as a person is pressured to relinquish certain behaviors as a result of treatment efforts they experience reactance, “a motivational drive to restore those free behaviors” (Rooney & Chovanec, 2004, p. 213). Rooney and Chovanec (2004) suggest an approach that draws upon the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical (Stages of Change) Model</a> and Motivational Interviewing in identifying strategies for engaging involuntary clients in the group process.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Caplan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tom Caplan">Tom Caplan</a> (2008) suggests the Needs ABC Model.</div>
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From the essay <a href="http://youthworkcentral.tripod.com/sean3.htm" target="_blank"><i>Groups and Group Work</i> by Sean Harte</a></h2>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">What is A Group: Defining Groupwork<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Groups may be defined in many ways, indeed providing an absolute definition of a group, as with much of the theory around group work, is highly problematic and contestable. However for the purposes of discussing groupwork within a context of working with young people we may define a group as a small gathering of young people. Group work may simplistically be described as the study and application of the processes and outcomes experienced when a small group comes together.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Konopka (1963) defines groupwork as a method of social work that is utilised in order to `help individuals to enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences, and to cope more effectively with their personal, group or community problems`. This definition shows a tradition within groupwork of helping individuals with problems. Brown provides a modernised and more comprehensive definition of group work (1994, p.8). He states that `groupwork provides a context in which <i>individuals help each other</i>; it is a method of <i>helping groups </i>as well as helping individuals; and it can enable individuals and groups to <i>influence</i> and <i>change</i> personal, group, organisational and community problems` (original emphasis). He goes on to distinguish between `relatively small and neighbourhood centred` work and `macro, societal and political approaches` within community work, explaining that only the former may be properly classified as groupwork.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Thus the role of groupwork can be seen as one which places emphasis on sharing of thoughts, ideas, problems and activities.</span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Stages of Group Development<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Groups, like individuals are each unique with their own experiences and expectations. However many commentators studying group development and dynamics have recognised that group development, as a generalisation, is more predictable than individual behaviour. Thus many theories of group stage development have been cultivated, some linear, others more cyclical, and it must be stressed that no definitive model of group stage development exists.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Two of the most useful theories of group stage development are those discussed by Tuckman (1965), and Rogers paper on encounter groups (1967). These models, like others (for example Heap, 1977) propose that as groups develop and change they pass through stages which may be conceptualised. Tuckman’s model has been used extensively within youth work theory and practice and is an excellent model for attempting to analyse individual and group behaviour. A brief synopsis of each stage is outlined below, with examples from personal practice.</span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Stage 1: Forming<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">The first stage of this group process is joining, referred to as <i>engagement</i> by Rogers. This phase involves significant testing, and trial and error. Initial concerns about openness and support within the group are manifested by a lack of cohesion and a difficulty in sharing thoughts, feelings and experiences with each other. An internal appraisal of group value and how each individual belongs to the group are key features of this stage. Anxiety, isolation, inadequacy and frustration are common emotions felt by group members at this early stage in the life of a group, as well as being emotionally threatened by members of the group who are perceived to be stronger or better. Thus the group seeks to create a comfort zone in which individuals are not keen to upset the status quo for fear of alienation.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Oppressive behaviour is least likely within the formation stage of a group as individuals generally look to create a comfort zone and do not wish to rock the boat. Often frustrations will be built upon between individuals who disagree strongly, but this will generally not surface until storming begins.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">A knowledge and understanding of the feelings and emotions felt by group members in this stage is helpful, if not essential, to the effective structuring of a programme to work towards the desired outcome for the group. For example both the YAM and PTV groups I had experience with were set up to encourage social interaction and personal development. Having an awareness of group stage theory enabled my colleagues and myself to structure the early encounters for the groups to be;</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">a) fun and enjoyable – to encourage continued attendance;</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">b) relaxed - offering the promotion of effective communication and allowing members to get to know each other a little whilst gaining in confidence and trust.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">To this end ice breakers, introduction and communication exercisers such as those provided by Brandes and Phillips (1979), Bond (1986), Leech and Wooster (1986) and Dearling and Armstrong (1994) were used. As Dynes describes<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> `[</span>games<span style="font-size: 11pt;">]</span> stimulate the imagination, make people<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span>resourceful and help develop social ability and co-operation` (Dynes, 1990).</span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Stage 2: Storming<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">This stage sees group members begin to confront each other as they begin to vie for roles within the group that will help them to belong and to feel valued. Thus as members begin to assert their individual personalities, the comfort of the forming stage begins to come under siege. Members experience personal, intra and inter group conflicts. Aggression and resentment may manifest in this stage and thus if strong personalities emerge and leadership is unresponsive to group and individual needs, the situation may become destructive to the group’ s development. Indeed there is a high potential for individuals to abandon the group during this stage, as for some the pressures created by the group may become too much of a strain.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">The potential for oppressive behaviour is strong within the storming phase as group members vie for preferred roles and release frustrations built within the forming period. This personal oppression should be discouraged whilst it is understood that a degree of conflict is necessary if the group is to further develop.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">In the YAM group this stage was represented by a rebellious streak within the young people and much of the storming was directed towards the adult leaders. Boundaries within the group were tested as the group explored how far they would be allowed to go and what they could get away with. One or two individuals in turn challenged this behaviour as they felt it was unfair and could jeopardize future activities.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">The PTV group’s storming phase was altogether different. Two of the group with strong personalities began to vie for intra-group leadership. Each used their own abilities to strengthen their claim to lead the group, whilst also sabotaging and undermining the other’s efforts in an attempt to usurp the leadership role. This situation caused a degree of infighting and at one point created two sub-groups, one following each of the `pretender` leaders.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">It is important to be aware that conflict will take place within all groups, and if handled well this conflict can produce benefits for the group in terms of development, objective and task setting, and ultimate outcome. Thus conflict is not inherently something to be feared or avoided.</span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Stage 3: Norming<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">During this stage the group begin to work more constructively together towards formal identified or informal tasks. Roles begin to develop and be allocated within the group and although these may be accepted, some members may not be comfortable with the role or roles which the have been allocated. During this stage sub-groups are likely to form in order that a supportive environment is once more created. Acceptable and unacceptable behaviours within the group are created and reinforced and thus the `norms` for this group become fabricated.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">The storming and norming phases of group development are inextricably linked, as it is often through the storming and challenging that acceptable group norms become set.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">It is important that a youth worker works hard during this stage to ensure oppression against individuals within the group do not become the acceptable norm, as then all group members will oppress these individuals. Thus, individual oppressions must be challenged and emphasis placed on challenging attitudes and opinions but not group members.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">The YAM group settled into group norms quite quickly, however some of the roles that were adopted were challenged by the co-leaders as they were seen to be obstructive to the group and individual’s objectives. One young person (J.) who was often badly behaved at school, was previously known to other group members. As these young people expected poor behaviour from J. this was the role which he adopted. This was challenged within the group context and it was pointed out that alternatives to this behaviour were available.</span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Stage 4: Performing<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">This stage sees the group performing effectively with defined roles, in fact at this stage it could be said that the group has transformed into a team. It is now that decisions may be positively challenged or reinforced by the group as a whole. The discomfort of the storming and norming phases has been overcome and the group has a general feeling of unity. This is the best stage for a group to complete tasks, assuming that task, rather than process and individuals, are the focus of the group.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">An excellent example of performing within the PTV group came during a residential week. One of the group (A.) admitted to a fear of heights and thus did not want to take part in an abseiling exercise. The whole group supported this decision but offered encouragement and support in order to promote participation. One individual (M.) spent time and energy showing leadership and helped A. to overcome his fears. A. took part in the abseil, being assisted by M. and encouraged by the whole group.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Potential exists within this stage for oppression to begin if one or more group members does not appear to fit in with the group’s view of its task, or is not performing as effectively as expected. Again it is important to challenge this if it occurs and to show how each member can benefit the group, through achievement of task, leadership, reviewing, moving on, or by monitoring the groups process.</span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Stage 5: Mourning<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">The final stage in the life of a group ultimately is its termination. Though often overlooked, this stage in group development is equally important to positive outcomes. The ending of a group can be a very unhappy and distressing time for some members, as they may feel some extent of dependency on the group. Garland<i>et al</i>. describe some of the typical responses to the ending phase as:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span>Denial – `forgetting` the time of the groups termination.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span>Regression – reverting to a less independent state of functioning.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span>Need expression – in the hope the group will continue.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span>Recapitulation – detailed recall of past experiences within the group.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span>Evaluation – detailed discussion on the value of the group experience.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">·<span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span>Flight – destructive denial of any positive benefit of the group, or a positive disengagement towards other interests.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Potential exists within this stage for members to be oppressed as scapegoats, that is blamed or at fault for the ending of the group. This can be minimised by constant focusing and refocusing on group end points and staged celebrations of group achievements.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">With the PTV group it was relatively easy to develop strategies to minimise the effects of the groups termination. The group’s life span was structured to a tight time-scale and end point from the outset. This was reinforced by getting the group to maintain a counting down chart which was marked off each day. The end of the group was marked by a large presentation to which friends and relatives were invited. The presentation marked a clear ending for the group from day one, whilst also serving as a celebration of all the groups achievements during its existence. Thus the end did not come as a `surprise`, and was something to look forward to.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">As we have seen the value of a theoretical understanding of conceptualising this group stage theory in youth work and other helping professions, lies in enabling group workers to `tune into the group’s processes and respond appropriately` (Preston-Shoot, 1987).<b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Group Leadership (and Types) <o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Effective groups should promote the value of all of its constituent members. One of the keys to establishing this end is competent leadership.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><img align="left" height="218" hspace="15" src="http://youthworkcentral.tripod.com/sean3.1.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1026" vspace="15" width="387" />Leadership can be and has been defined in many ways. It is seen as ` the act of commanding and directing, the actions of leaders, the process by which groups achieve their goals, the antithesis of followership` (Sessoms and Stevenson, 1981, p. 5). Leadership can be seen as the act of `moving people towards goal achievement`, and may be viewed as an interaction<b><i> </i></b>between leaders, followers and goals (see Fig. 1, above), thus it may be described as a process (Sessoms and<b><i></i></b>Stevenson, <i>ibid</i>). <b><i>Fig. 1. - Source</i></b><i>: Sessoms and Stevenson (1981)</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">So `In a broad sense, leadership may be described as influence` (Barker <i>et al</i>, 1979, p. 224), thus the individual who will often be seen as the leader of a youth group, that is the adult, often may in fact not be the most influential member of the group.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><img align="left" height="310" hspace="15" src="http://youthworkcentral.tripod.com/sean3.2.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1027" vspace="15" width="355" />Effective leadership depends on the balancing of the three variables in diagram Fig. 2. (left), thus the groups task, individual needs and group maintenance must all be considered.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><b><i>Fig. 2. - Source</i></b><i>: Adapted from John Adair (1988) Effective Leadership<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Fundamentally within youth work we must recognise the `possibility of all members contributing to the process by which groups seek and achieve goals` (Barker <i>et al</i>, 1979, p. 226-229). Thus leadership is a dynamic variable and any `person who performs actions which move a group toward its goal and/or maintain the group more frequently and more effectively than other group members` may be identified as group leaders (Barker <i>et al</i>, 1979, <i>ibid</i>.).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Leadership is often described within a context of three differing styles, laissez faire, democratic and autocratic (or authoritarian).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Simplistically the three styles can be described as;</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><i>Laissez faire</i> – letting members do pretty much as they please without the leader offering judgement on other members decisions. This works best when a well functioning group, i.e. one than may be in a performing phase, is working towards a well defined task. This method is exceptionally difficult if more than a handful of group members are present and is often used within sub-groups developed to perform specific sub-tasks. For example the PTV team would use this style for brainstorming specific ideas for projects, as the non-judgemental attitude facilitated more group responses.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><i>Democratic</i> – consultation and discussion takes place before decisions are made. This allows group members to have their say but does not guarantee that these feelings will be acted upon. This style is an ideal method of leadership within youth work as the group is more likely to contribute to the decision making process and also the group is more likely to buy-in to decisions which are made. Again this style works best with smaller groups, the larger the group the longer the decision making processes will tend to become. It is often preferable to separate a very large group into sub-groups to ensure all have a chance to input into decision making and then reconvene all group members into a plenary session where all ideas can be fed back and shared, resulting in an ultimate group decision. This style was used within the PTV group in order to achieve a shared sense of belonging within the group and to get all the members to `buy-in` to completing the tasks in hand.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><i>Autocratic</i> or <i>authoritarian</i> – one leader is the sole person involved in making decisions within the group, the information is passed on to the group rather than options being discussed openly. This is a style that I have personally seldom used as it is not ideal for achieving the educational aims of youth work. However I am aware that very large groups may find an autocratic leader can speed up a decision making process. This can be important when issues such as the group’s physical safety are involved, for example if a group is on expedition on the side of a mountain and the weather becomes rough, it may become necessary to enforce a quick decision to retreat, to ensure group safety. The process of this decision making can then be evaluated and debated once the group is in a safe setting.</span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Roles within Groups<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Each individual within a group has a role to play in the development of that group to a greater or lesser extent. Through <i>observation</i>, understanding of <i>difference</i>, awareness of personal <i>resources</i> and effective<i>communication</i> (Douglas, 1995), each member may affect group processes and individual emotions. Roles develop within groups both through formal appointment and because of the personal characteristics and interpersonal relationships that develop between members. Roles which develop can be constructive and support the group and its members in achieving its goals, or can be destructive and work against the overall group aims. Individuals within the group can develop several roles and at times these may conflict. For example a PTV member who was designated as <i>leader</i> for a specific task, also played a <i>clown</i> and was fond of practical jokes. The fooling around led to a lack of trust from other group members creating a conflict with the leadership role.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">As the group begins to develop an understanding of four things can be observed:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><i>Observation</i>: the way we behave is based upon what we observe of ourselves, and what we make of others and their reactions to us.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><i>Differences</i>: personally and socially generated; the effects they have on behaviour and understanding.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><i>Resources</i>: frequently stemming from difference but are the source of potential power for a group and an individual.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;"><i>Communication</i>: considered to be natural but subject to many barriers that remain largely unknown unless a conscious effort is made to find them:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">(Douglas, 1995, p. 80-97) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Through supportive roles, groups may play a part in reducing oppression generated externally to the group. Groupwork can be used as a medium for oppressed groups to `help these groups adjust in society`, and moreover to help society to adjust towards these groups. This can be achieved by `individual rehabilitation` in which we can `help individuals to adjust to social life and manage … tension … gain confidence, high self esteem`, and in `getting and keeping employment etc.`. `Societal or community rehabilitation` involves `helping the society to have meaningful contact` with individuals and groups which are discriminated against and oppressed (Osei-Hwedie, Mwansa, and Mufune, 1990, p. 188).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Preston-Shoot describes groupwork creating a `sense of belonging and mutual identity` encouraging `the formation of relationships which foster mutual identification and influence`, thus feelings of isolation and singularity with issues of difference and oppression may be reduced. Also, the group may be encouraged to use its internal resources to move towards individual or group `problem-resolution`, reducing feelings of helplessness, building self worth, and discouraging worker dependency (Preston-Shoot, 1987, p. 6-28). Smith concurs with this view of the suitability of groupwork, stating `Groups are obvious sites of interaction and within them a sense of connectedness or community with others can be fostered` (Smith, 1994, p.111). This `connectedness` is a valuable tool with which to challenge discrimination and oppression, for as Piven and Cloward argue, it is only when we act collectively that change can begin (Piven and Cloward, 1993).</span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Conclusion: Group Work – Double Edged Sword?<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">To state that group work is not an exact science is something of an understatement. As we have seen, it is problematic to even define what is meant by a group as no absolute definition exists. Similarly most, if not all, concepts within group work theory can be, and are, contested.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">Groups are extremely important in the lives of all individuals. Johnson and Johnson (1975, p1-2) state `many of our goals can be achieved only with the cooperation and coordination of others`.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS; font-size: x-small;">However `the success of any group depends on the ability of its members to exchange ideas freely and to feel involved in the life and decisions of the group` (Massallay, 1990). All groups within youth work have goals, i.e. a future state of affairs. It is important that short term and long term goals are set realistically if the group is to develop and function effectively. These functions are achieved through the direction of leadership and the development of individual roles within each group.</span></div>
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<br />SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-21906983300761641812012-12-11T11:47:00.000-08:002012-12-11T11:56:41.910-08:00News: ADHD Can Cause Lifelong Problems, Study Finds - US News and World Report<h2 style="text-align: center;">
ADHD Can Cause Lifelong Problems, Study Finds</h2>
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Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder that persists into adulthood may affect physical and mental health</h3>
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If children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, continue to have the condition in adulthood, a new study suggests that they may face an array of physical and mental health issues.</blockquote>
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<b>The study, which spanned more than 30 years, found</b> that people who had ADHD as teens and adults face a greater risk of stress, work problems, financial troubles, physical health issues and additional mental health issues, such as depression or antisocial personality disorder. </blockquote>
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<i><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 33px;">They also had difficulty in terms of work and experienced a great deal of financial stress. </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 33px;">82 percent higher odds of having impaired physical health. They were also more than twice as likely to have another mental health problem</span></span></i></blockquote>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 33px;">The study included 551 children. Seventy-two of those children were diagnosed with ADHD in 1975 when they were between the ages of 14 and 16. The researchers followed up with the children as they grew, and the final of five outcome surveys was given at an average age of 37.</span></blockquote>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://health.usnews.com/health-news/news/articles/2012/12/10/adhd-can-cause-lifelong-problems-study-finds">ADHD Study - US News and World Report</a> </span>SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-36136894185618393822012-10-01T14:16:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:06:39.620-07:00License Exam: Service Delivery (9%)<h2>
Service Delivery (9%)</h2>
SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-11362717033685030272012-10-01T13:54:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:06:23.709-07:00License Exam: Practice Questions<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: normal;">ASWB License Exam Practice Questions</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: normal;"> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><b>NOTE: Answers are displayed in the same color font as the background, in order to hide them as you try to answer the question on your own. Select the paragraph under the heading "ANSWER:" in order to read the answer as highlighted text.</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;">1. QUESTION: </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;">Your client has been diagnosed with schizophrenia and has been prescribed an antipsychotic drug - a phenothiazine called Thorazine (Chlorpromazine). Which of the following side-effects is the client MOST LIKELY to experience as a result of taking this medication?</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;"><br /></span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #134f5c; font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;">A. Clouded consciousness.</span><br /><span style="background-color: white; color: #134f5c; font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;">B. Drowsiness.</span><br /><span style="background-color: white; color: #134f5c; font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;">C. Agitation.</span><br /><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #134f5c;">D. Dizziness.</span></span><br /><span style="color: #134f5c; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #134f5c;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #134f5c;">ANSWER:</span> </span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><br /></span></span></span><span style="color: #f3f3f3; font-size: 12px; line-height: 13px;">B is correct: Antipsychptic drugs are also called "major tranquilizers." Thorazine (or Chlorpromazine) will cause sedation and drowsiness in about 40 percent of people, especially during the first two weeks. The other sjde effects may occur when taking </span><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #f3f3f3;">phenothiazines but in very small percentages (under 10%)</span><span style="color: #134f5c;">.</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">2. QUESTION: You are conducting an initial session of family therapy with your new clients. The mother tells the daughter that she is the cause of the family's problems. What would be the FIRST APPROPRIATE action?</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">A. ask the daughter to step outside</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">B. reschedule a session with the mother and father</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">C. ask the mother about her feelings</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">D. ask the father about his opinion</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">C is the first appropriate action to take. A family is a unit and therefore should not exclude the daughter from sessions. When family therapy is appropriate, the family functions together and must address its issues as a whole. Asking the mother to elaborate about her feelings surrounding her statement will help the family to clarify its challenges so they can address them. A father was not discussed in the question and must not be assumed to be a member of this family, as families come in all types of configurations.</span><br />
<span style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><br /></span></span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">This answer is a good example of how to use the <a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/07/the-social-work-intervention-model.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: white;">Social Work Intervention Model / Problem-Solving Method</span></a></span><span style="color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">: </span><br />
<span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">ENGAGE >; COLLECT INFO > ASSESS / DIAGNOSE > SET GOALS and PLAN TREATMENT > EVALUATE > TERMINATE. In this stage of the treatment, social workers engage and collect info in order to make an assessment of the family's needs.</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #134f5c; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">3. QUESTION: The reliability coefficient of a set of scores is 0.75. What does this coefficient mean?</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #134f5c; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">A. 25% of variability is due to true score differences</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #134f5c; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">B. 75% of variability is due to true score differences</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #134f5c; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">C. </span><span style="color: #134f5c; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">25% of reliability is due to true score differences</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">D. 75% of reliability is due to true score differences</span></div>
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<span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">ANSWER:</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: white;">B is the correct answer. In </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"><span style="color: white;">statistics</span></a><span style="color: white;">, reliability is the consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces consistent results under consistent conditions. For example, measurements of people’s height and weight. </span></span></span><span style="color: white;">Reliability does not imply </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(psychometric)"><span style="color: white;">validity</span></a><span style="color: white;">. That is, a reliable measure that is measuring something consistently, may not be measuring what you want to be measuring. <span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: white;">Reliability</span> <span style="color: white;">theory shows that the variance of obtained scores is simply the sum of the variance of true scores plus the variance of errors of measurement<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_(statistics)#cite_note-David-4">[5]</a></sup>. The reliability coefficient</span> <img alt="\rho_{xx'} " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/7/e/87e44d44c1e0e359a7e87c2833e94adb.png" /> <span style="color: white;">provides an index of the relative influence of true and error scores on attained test scores. In its general form, the reliability coefficient is defined as the ratio of <i>true score</i> variance to the total variance of test scores. </span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #134f5c;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: white;">Unfortunately, there is no way to directly observe or calculate the true score, so a variety of methods are used to estimate the reliability of a test. Some examples of the methods to estimate reliability include </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-retest_reliability"><span style="color: white;">test-retest reliability</span></a><span style="color: white;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_consistency"><span style="color: white;">internal consistency</span></a><span style="color: white;"> reliability, and <i>parallel-test reliability</i>. <span style="color: #134f5c; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><br /></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #004080; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">4. QUESTION: A client of yours has episodes of intense temper. This symptom is part of which DSM-IV-TR diagnosis?</span><br />
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<span style="color: #004080; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A. Borderline Personality Disorder</span><br />
<span style="color: #004080; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">B. Antisocial Personality Disorder</span><br />
<span style="color: #004080; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">C. Narcissistic Personality Disorder</span><br />
<span style="color: #004080; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">D. Dependent Personality Disorder</span><br />
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<span style="color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The answer is A. The DSM criteria for diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is indicated by 5 or more symptoms related to a pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions/affects, such as number 8: inappropriate, intense anger. Other symptoms deal with fear of abandonment, impulsive self-damaging behaviors, suicidal threats and gestures, and chronic feelings of emptiness. People with BPD may have a tendency to themselves and others as all good or all bad, with no grey areas; this is termed “splitting.”</span><br />
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<span style="color: white;"><span style="color: #004080; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5. QUESTION:</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: white;"><span style="color: #004080; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">ANSWER:</span></span>SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-36140655956261195562012-09-28T13:19:00.001-07:002012-12-11T11:53:35.809-08:00NPR: Gender Bias in Books -- Women, Men And Fiction<h3>
Women, Men And Fiction: </h3>
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Notes On How Not To Answer Hard Questions</h3>
<a href="http://www.npr.org/blogs/monkeysee/2012/09/27/161885368/women-men-and-fiction-notes-on-how-not-to-answer-hard-questions"><b>Listen to the Story</b></a><br />
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<blockquote>
Nothing is more vexing than a question where 10 percent of the public discussion is spent trying to answer it and 90 percent is spent arguing about whether it matters.</blockquote>
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Such is the question of why, in many major publications, far more books by men are reviewed than books by women. Probably the best-known set of statistics comes from an <a href="http://www.vidaweb.org/category/the-count" target="_blank">organization called VIDA (Women in the Literary Arts), which has created a feature called "The Count</a>." That feature consists of pie charts that track the number of women and men both doing the reviewing and being reviewed. For instance, <a href="http://www.vidaweb.org/the-2011-count" style="color: #3366cc; text-decoration: none;">in 2011, they found</a> that <em>The New York Review Of Books </em>reviewed 71 female authors and 293 male authors. In <em>The New York Times</em>, it was 273 women and 520 men.</blockquote>
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<b><i><span style="color: #cc0000;">Those in power, sometimes unaware of their privilege, are the ones who question whether this list and these activities matter. In our very gender-ed social culture, that's men. </span></i></b>SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-27459568931405078472012-09-25T13:41:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:04:59.085-07:00License Exam: Research and Evaluation (2%)<h1>
Research and Evaluation (2%)</h1>
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<span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, nimbus sans l, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #004080;">.</span></span></span><span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, nimbus sans l, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, nimbus sans l, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, nimbus sans l, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #004080;">. In </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"><span style="color: #004080;">statistics</span></a><span style="color: #004080;">, <b>reliability</b> is the consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high <b>reliability</b> if it produces consistent results under consistent conditions. For example, measurements of people’s height and weight. </span></span></span><span style="color: #004080;">Reliability does not imply </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(psychometric)"><span style="color: #004080;">validity</span></a><span style="color: #004080;">. That is, a reliable measure that is measuring something consistently, may not be measuring what you want to be measuring. <span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, nimbus sans l, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;">Reliability theory shows that the variance of obtained scores is simply the sum of the variance of <b>true scores</b> plus the variance of <b>errors of measurement</b><sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_(statistics)#cite_note-David-4">[5]</a></sup>. The reliability coefficient <img alt="\rho_{xx'} " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/8/7/e/87e44d44c1e0e359a7e87c2833e94adb.png" /> provides an index of the relative influence of true and error scores on attained test scores. In its general form, the reliability coefficient is defined as the ratio of <i>true score</i> variance to the total variance of test scores. </span></span></span><span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, nimbus sans l, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #004080;">Unfortunately, there is no way to directly observe or calculate the <b>true score</b>, so a variety of methods are used to estimate the reliability of a test. Some examples of the methods to estimate reliability include </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-retest_reliability"><span style="color: #004080;">test-retest reliability</span></a><span style="color: #004080;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_consistency"><span style="color: #004080;">internal consistency</span></a><span style="color: #004080;"> reliability, and <i>parallel-test reliability</i>. <span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, 'Nimbus Sans L', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"></span></span><span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, nimbus sans l, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><br /></span></span></span></span> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, nimbus sans l, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #004080; font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, nimbus sans l, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"><span style="color: #134f5c; font-family: arial, helvetica, 'Nimbus Sans L', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 13px;"></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #004080;"></span>SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-58125266535866970042012-09-24T15:11:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:41:59.485-07:00License Exam: Clinical Practice<h1>
Clinical Theories and Interventions</h1>
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Links</h2>
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<li><a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/09/npr-audio-diagnosis-can-miss-adhd.html" target="_blank">Diagnosis Can Miss ADHD in Girls</a></li>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#Clinical_theories_and_interventions">Clinical Theories and Interventions</a></li>
<li><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/crisiscounseling/f/crisis-counsel.htm" target="_blank">Crisis Counseling elements on Psychology.About.com</a></li>
</ul>
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Theories</h2>
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<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#Clinical_theories_and_interventions">Clinical Theories and Interventions</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://www.socialworkexamhelp.com/theories.html" target="_blank">http://www.socialworkexamhelp.com/theories.html</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Psychological_theories">Psychological Theories</a> <ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Attachment_theory">Attachment theory</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Learning_theory_(education)">Learning theory</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Motivational_theories">Motivational theories</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Personality_theories">Personality theories</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Psychoanalytic_theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_learning_theory">Social learning theory</a> </li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_psychology">Ego psychology</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<strong></strong></h5>
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Therapy / Counseling</h2>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#Clinical_theories_and_interventions">Clinical Theories and Interventions</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.socialworkexamhelp.com/counseling.html">http://www.socialworkexamhelp.com/counseling.html</a></div>
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<h3>
Group Therapy</h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_psychotherapy">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_psychotherapy</a> <br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamics">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamics</a> <br />
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<h3>
Behavioral Theory / Behaviorism (WATSON, SKINNER)</h3>
<a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/08/behavioral-theory-behaviorism.html">Behavioral Theory (Behaviorism)</a> , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a> , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_therapy">Behavior Therapy</a> <br />
We practice with human beings in their <em>social</em> environments, so this comment from one of the founding fathers of Behaviorism speaks volumes about the causes of human behavior, as well as methods we can employ to assist them in changing those very things that challenge them: <br />
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<i>Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. </i>--John Watson, 1930</blockquote>
Behavioral theory is based on the belief that <strong>our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our behaviors</strong>. There are two major types of conditioning that produce behavior: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning"><strong>Operant conditioning</strong></a><strong> - a method of learning that occurs through rewards (</strong><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/reinforcement.htm"><strong>reinforcements</strong></a><strong>) and </strong><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/punishment.htm"><strong>punishments</strong></a><strong> for behavior, and </strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning"><strong>Classical (Pavlovian or Respondent) Conditioning</strong></a><strong>) where a stimulus is paired with a response to produce a behavior.</strong> See also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism">Behaviorism on Wikipedia</a>. <br />
<strong>Major Thinkers in Behaviorism: </strong><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/pavlov.htm">Ivan Pavlov</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_skinner.htm">B. F. Skinner</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesmz/p/edward-thorndike.htm">Edward Thorndike</a> <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/watson.htm">John B. Watson</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesal/p/clark-hull.htm">Clark Hull</a> . <br />
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<h3>
REBT / Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (ELLIS)</h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REBT">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REBT</a> <br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)</a> <br />
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<h3>
Family Therapy</h3>
<a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/08/family-therapy.html">Family Therapy</a> <br />
The family is a <b>psychological unit</b>, in which changes in one member affect other members and the <b>family's functioning</b>. Therapy usually focuses on present problems and their practical solutions, in the context of its <b>cultural beliefs</b>. Family therapy is inappropriate in circumstances where destructive behavior or abuse is present. See also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_therapy">Family Therapy on Wikipedia</a> <br />
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<b>Types of family therapy</b>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_systems_therapy">Family Systems</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Bowen">Bowen</a>) , Experiential (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Satir">Satir</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Whitaker">Whitaker</a>) , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_therapy">Narrative </a>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Epston">Epston</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_White_(psychotherapist)">White</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_therapy">Strategic </a>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Haley">Haley</a>, Madanes), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_family_therapy">Structural</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador_Minuchin">Minuchin</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_focused_brief_therapy">Solution-Focused</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_de_Shazer">de Shazer</a>) , Psychodynamic (Scharff), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Satir">Communications Model</a> (Jackson, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Haley">Haley</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_therapy">Feminist</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Bem">Bern</a>) <br />
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<h3>
Reality Therapy (GLASSER)</h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_therapy">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_therapy</a> <br />
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Feminist Therapy (BEM, MILLER, BROWN, JORDAN)</h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_therapy">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_therapy</a> <br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Bem">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Bem</a> SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-9012506293746603552012-09-24T14:17:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:07:45.569-07:00License Exam: Supervision, Administration, and Policy (8%)<h2>
Supervision, Administration, and Policy (8%)</h2>
SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-89170186451658289162012-09-24T13:39:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:07:31.402-07:00License Exam: Communication (7%)<h1>
Communication (7%)</h1>
SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-65362466637587228092012-09-23T14:09:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:05:36.142-07:00License Exam: Direct and Indirect Practice - Micro and Macro (22%)<h1>
Direct and Indirect Practice - Micro and Macro (22%) </h1>
<a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/09/license-exam-clinical-practice.html" target="_blank">Clinical Practice</a> <br />
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<a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/09/license-exam-community-practice.html" target="_blank">Community Practice</a><br />
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Clinical Practice</h1>
<h3>
Clinical Theories and Interventions</h3>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#Clinical_theories_and_interventions">Clinical Theories and Interventions</a></div>
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<a href="http://www.socialworkexamhelp.com/counseling.html">http://www.socialworkexamhelp.com/counseling.html</a><br />
<a href="http://www.socialworkexamhelp.com/theories.html" target="_blank">http://www.socialworkexamhelp.com/theories.html</a><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Psychological_theories" target="_blank">Psychological Theories</a></div>
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<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Attachment_theory">Attachment theory</a> </li>
<li> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Learning_theory_(education)">Learning theory </a> </li>
<li> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Motivational_theories">Motivational theories</a> </li>
<li> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Personality_theories">Personality theories</a> </li>
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<h4>
Behavioral Theory / Behaviorism (WATSON, SKINNER)</h4>
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<a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/08/behavioral-theory-behaviorism.html">Behavioral Theory (Behaviorism)</a> , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a> , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_therapy">Behavior Therapy</a><br />
We practice with human beings in their <em>social</em> environments, so this comment from one of the founding fathers of Behaviorism speaks volumes about the causes of human behavior, as well as methods we can employ to assist them in changing those very things that challenge them: </div>
<blockquote>
<i>Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. </i>--John Watson, 1930</blockquote>
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Behavioral theory is based on the belief that <strong>our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our behaviors</strong>. There are two major types of conditioning that produce behavior: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning"><strong>Operant conditioning</strong></a><strong> - a method of learning that occurs through rewards (</strong><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/reinforcement.htm"><strong>reinforcements</strong></a><strong>) and </strong><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/punishment.htm"><strong>punishments</strong></a><strong> for behavior, and </strong><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning"><strong>Classical (Pavlovian or Respondent) Conditioning</strong></a><strong>) where a stimulus is paired with a response to produce a behavior.</strong> See also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" target="_blank">Behaviorism on Wikipedia</a>. </div>
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Its roots are in behaviorism. In behavior therapy, environmental events predict the way we think and feel. Our behavior sets up conditions for the environment to feed back on it. Sometimes the feedback leads the behavior to increase (reinforcement), and sometimes the behavior decreases (punishment).<br />
<strong></strong></div>
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<strong>Theorists in Behaviorism: </strong><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/pavlov.htm">Ivan Pavlov</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_skinner.htm">B. F. Skinner</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesmz/p/edward-thorndike.htm">Edward Thorndike</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/watson.htm">John B. Watson</a> , <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesal/p/clark-hull.htm">Clark Hull</a> .</div>
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<h4>
Ecological Theory </h4>
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Therapy focuses on the social environment, which contains the causes of one’s life challenges.</div>
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<h4>
Ego Psychology (HARTMANN)</h4>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_psychology">Ego psychology</a><br />
Therapy focuses on providing ego support. common themes including examination of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transference">transference</a> and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.<br />
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<h4>
Cognitive Theory (<span style="color: #004080;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Beck" target="_blank">BECK</a></span>) and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy / CBT (MICHENBAUM)</h4>
grew out of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology">cognitive psychology</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>. CBT is based on the theory that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion), and how we act (behavior) are related and interact together. Dysfunctional ways of interpreting and appraising the world (often through <i>schemas</i> or <i>beliefs</i>) can contribute to emotional distress or result in behavioral problems. Behavior will follow one’s thoughts and reasoning about the world, so thoughts are the target of change. Therapy might include worksheets to record distressing cognitions, in order to dispute and reframe them into more realistic, less threatening positive thoughts. Taking action itself will also in some cases help to disprove unrealistic beliefs that we act on, causing negative consequences for our self-esteem and relationships. Focus is on making changes in how one thinks and acts. The object of many cognitive behavioral therapies is to discover and identify the biased, dysfunctional ways of relating or reacting and through different methodologies help clients transcend these in ways that will lead to increased well-being.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-49">[50]</a></sup> There are many techniques used, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_desensitization">systematic desensitization</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_questioning">socratic questioning</a>, and keeping a cognition observation log. Modified approaches that fall into the category of CBT have also developed, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectical_behavior_therapy">dialectical behavior therapy</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness-based_cognitive_therapy">mindfulness-based cognitive therapy</a>.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-50">[51]</a></sup><br />
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<h4>
Existential Psychology (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Frankl" target="_blank"><span style="color: #004080;">FRANKL</span></a><span style="color: #004080;">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_May" target="_blank"><span style="color: #004080;">MAY</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvin_Yalom" target="_blank"><span style="color: #004080;">YALOM</span></a>)</h4>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_psychology">existential psychology</a><br />
postulates that people are largely free to choose who we are and how we interpret and interact with the world. It intends to help the client find deeper meaning in life and to accept responsibility for living. As such, it addresses fundamental issues of life, such as death, aloneness, and freedom. The therapist emphasizes the client's ability to be self-aware, freely make choices in the present, establish personal identity and social relationships, create meaning, and cope with the natural anxiety of living.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-53">[54]</a></sup> Important writers in existential therapy include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_May">Rollo May</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Frankl">Victor Frankl</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bugental">James Bugental</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvin_Yalom">Irvin Yalom</a>.<br />
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Group Dynamics and Therapy (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvin_Yalom" target="_blank"><span style="color: #004080;">YALOM</span></a>)</h4>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_psychotherapy">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_psychotherapy</a><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamics" target="_blank">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamics</a></div>
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<h5>
Stages of Group Development</h5>
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width: 682px;"> <tbody>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="68"><div align="center">
<strong>ORDER</strong></div>
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<strong>STAGE NAME</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="426"><strong>DESCRIPTION of Milestones</strong></td></tr>
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1</div>
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<strong>Pre-affiliation</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="426">development of trust </td></tr>
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2</div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="186"><div align="center">
<strong>Power & Control</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="426">struggles for individual autonomy vs. group affiliation</td></tr>
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3</div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="186"><div align="center">
<strong>Intimacy</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="426">utilize self to serve others, AKA “norming”</td></tr>
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4</div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="186"><div align="center">
<strong>Differentiation</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="426">acceptance of others and self as distinct individuals</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<h6>
<strong>Social Identity Theory</strong> (TAJFEL)</h6>
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Social identity is dependent on group affiliation. People inherently over-value their own groups because it enhances their self-esteem. We naturally favor the <strong>ingroup</strong>.</div>
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Family Therapy (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sue_Johnson">Johnson</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Satir"> Satir</a> , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gottman">Gottman</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Haley">Haley</a>)</h4>
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<a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/08/family-therapy.html">Family Therapy</a> </div>
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The family is a <b>psychological unit</b>, in which changes in one member affect other members and the <b>family's functioning</b>. Family therapy is geared toward helping individual members become aware of their defensive reactions and to <b>communicate </b>more openly with each other; it usually focuses on present problems and their practical solutions. Families are also <b>self-regulating</b> and tend toward <b>homeostasis</b>, though returning to it may bring about additional challenges. A family is a <b>multi-generational</b> network, that employs its <b>cultural beliefs</b>. Family therapy is inappropriate in circumstances where <b>domestic/family violence</b>, destructive behavior, or abuse between members is present. Systems or family therapy works with couples and families, and emphasizes family relationships as an important factor in psychological health. The central focus tends to be on interpersonal dynamics, especially in terms of how change in one person will affect the entire system.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-52">[53]</a></sup> Therapy is therefore conducted with as many significant members of the "system" as possible. Goals can include improving communication, establishing healthy roles, creating alternative narratives, and addressing problematic behaviors.</div>
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<b>Types of family therapy</b>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_systems_therapy" target="_blank">Family Systems</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Bowen" target="_blank">Bowen</a>) , Experiential (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Satir" target="_blank">Satir</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Whitaker" target="_blank">Whitaker</a>) , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_therapy" target="_blank">Narrative </a>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Epston" target="_blank">Epston</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_White_(psychotherapist)" target="_blank">White</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_therapy" target="_blank">Strategic </a>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Haley" target="_blank">Haley</a>, Madanes), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_family_therapy" target="_blank">Structural</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador_Minuchin" target="_blank">Minuchin</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_focused_brief_therapy" target="_blank">Solution-Focused</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_de_Shazer" target="_blank">de Shazer</a>) , Psychodynamic (Scharff), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Satir" target="_blank">Communications Model</a> (Jackson, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Haley" target="_blank">Haley</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_therapy" target="_blank">Feminist</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Bem" target="_blank">Bern</a>) </div>
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See also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_therapy" target="_blank">Family Therapy on Wikipedia</a></div>
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Feminist Therapy (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Bem" target="_blank"><span style="color: #004080;">BEM</span></a><span style="color: #004080;">, MILLER, BROWN, JORDAN</span>)</h4>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_therapy">Feminist therapy</a> is an orientation arising from the disparity between the origin of most psychological theories (which have male authors) and the majority of people seeking counseling being female. It focuses on societal, cultural, and political causes and solutions to issues faced in the counseling process. It openly encourages the client to participate in the world in a more social and political way.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-60">[61]</a></sup></div>
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Gestalt Therapy (PERLS)</h4>
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Focuses on the Here-and-Now, the present and how to adapt to it, refusing to search the past for answers about the causes of problems. It came out of existential therapy in the 1950s. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology">Gestalt</a> techniques might focus on immediate interactions between client and therapist, designed to increase insight and self-awareness—the best-known perhaps being the "empty chair technique"—which are generally intended to explore resistance to "authentic contact," resolve internal conflicts, and help the client complete "unfinished business."<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-woldt-54">[55]</a></sup><br />
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<h4>
Narrative Therapy</h4>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_therapy">narrative therapy</a></div>
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A postmodern therapy</div>
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<b>Positive psychology</b> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Seligman" target="_blank"><span style="color: #004080;">SELIGMAN</span></a>)</h4>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology">Positive psychology</a> is the scientific study of human happiness and well-being, which started to gain momentum in 1998 due to the call of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Seligman">Martin Seligman</a>,<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-61">[62]</a></sup> then president of the APA. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology">history of psychology</a> shows that the field has been primarily dedicated to addressing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_illness">mental illness</a> rather than mental wellness. Applied positive psychology's main focus, therefore, is to increase one's positive experience of life and ability to flourish by promoting such things as optimism about the future, a sense of flow in the present, and personal traits like courage, perseverance, and altruism.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-62">[63]</a></sup><sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-63">[64]</a></sup> There is now preliminary empirical evidence to show that by promoting Seligman's three components of happiness—positive emotion (the pleasant life), engagement (the engaged life), and meaning (the meaningful life)—positive therapy can decrease clinical depression.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-64">[65]</a></sup></div>
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<h4>
REBT / Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)" target="_blank">ELLIS</a>)</h4>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REBT">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REBT</a><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)</a><br />
a large portion of therapeutic work is intended to happen outside of session, grew out of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology">cognitive psychology</a> and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism">behaviorism</a>.</div>
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Self Psychology (<span style="color: #0000a0;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Kohut" target="_blank">KOHUT</a></span>)</h4>
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</div>
<div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_psychology">self psychology</a></div>
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common themes including examination of transference and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_mechanisms">defenses</a>, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.</div>
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<h4>
Solution-Focused Therapy</h4>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution-focused_therapy">solution-focused therapy</a></div>
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A postmodern therapy in which the Focus is on making changes in how one thinks and acts</div>
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Person- or Client-Centered Therapy / Rogerian (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers" target="_blank"><u><span style="color: #004080;">ROGERS</span></u></a>)</h4>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person-centered_therapy">person-centered therapy</a> </div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" target="_blank">Humanistic</a> therapy in which interventions center on the here-and-now interaction between client and therapist, viewing the whole person and seeking to integrate the whole self (self-actualization). Rogers believed that a client needed only three things from a clinician to experience therapeutic improvement: congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathetic understanding.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-46">[47]</a></sup> As compared to previous negative estimations of the client as sinful, evil and “dirty” or inappropriate Person-centered therapy considers each individual person as already having the inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and self-concept. The mission of the humanistic psychologist is to help the individual employ these resources. </div>
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<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width: 795px;"> <tbody>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="250"><div align="center">
<strong>PRINCIPLE</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="543"><div align="center">
<strong>DESCRIPTION</strong></div>
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<tr> <td valign="top" width="250"><div align="center">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(psychology)"><strong><span style="color: #0000a0;">phenomenology</span></strong></a></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="543">attempt to put a therapist in closer contact with a person by listening to the person's report of their recent subjective experiences, especially emotions of which the person is not fully aware. For example, in relationships the problem at hand is often not based around what actually happened but, instead, based around the perceptions and feelings of each individual in the relationship. The phenomenal field focuses on "how one feels right now".</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="250"><div align="center">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjectivity"><span style="color: #004080;"><strong>intersubjectivity</strong></span></a></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="543">referring to the relationship between people, especially the therapist and client; how each feels about it, the interplay between the two affecting each other and the relationship</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="250"><div align="center">
<span style="color: #004080;"><strong>first-person categories</strong></span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="543"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div>
</div>
<div>
</div>
<h4>
</h4>
<h4>
</h4>
<h4>
</h4>
<br />
<h4>
<br /> </h4>
<h4>
Reality Therapy (GLASSER)</h4>
<div>
<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_therapy">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_therapy</a></div>
<div>
<br />
<br />
</div>
<h4>
Object Relations Theory</h4>
<div>
</div>
<div>
MAHLER <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_relations_theory">object relations theory</a></div>
<div>
common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.</div>
<div>
</div>
<div>
</div>
<div>
</div>
<h4>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Psychoanalytic_theory">Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic theory</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" target="_blank"><span style="color: #004080;">FREUD</span></a>)</h4>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Psychoanalytic_theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a> , <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamic_psychotherapy">Psychodynamic psychotherapy</a><br />
common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state. The core object of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious—to make the client aware of his or her own primal drives (namely those relating to sex and aggression) and the various <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_mechanisms">defenses</a> used to keep them in check. Defense mechanisms are completely unconscious. <br />
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width: 770px;"> <tbody>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="160"><div align="center">
<strong>DEFENSE MECHANISM</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="608"><div align="center">
<strong>DESCRIPTION</strong> </div>
</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="160"><div align="center">
<strong>Denial</strong> </div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="608">there is no problem, so no need to make changes (common in substance abuse).</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="160"><div align="center">
<strong>Repression</strong> </div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="608">symptomatic forgetting, amnesia, serving to banish unacceptable (threatening) thoughts or impulses; e.g., threatening thoughts about sexual identity.</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="160"><div align="center">
<strong>Regression</strong> </div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="608">return to infantile thought or behavior.</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="160"><div align="center">
<strong>Idealization</strong> </div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="608">overestimation of the admired characteristics of another.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Therapy focuses on gaining insight into the unconscious mind, in order to resolve problems caused by one’s internal drives (usually unacceptable). Goal is to gain a greater understanding of the motivations underlying one's thoughts and feelings. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalyst">psychoanalyst</a> might encourage <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_association_(psychology)">free association</a> of ideas to gain that understanding. Also important is an examination of the client's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transference">transference</a> towards the therapist, defined as the tendency to take unconscious thoughts or emotions about a significant person (e.g. a parent) and "transfer" them onto another person.<br />
<br />
<br />
<h4>
Social Learning Theory (<span style="color: #004080;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandura" target="_blank">BANDURA</a></span>)</h4>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_learning_theory">Social learning theory</a> <br />
<div>
<br />
</div>
<h3>
</h3>
<h1>
Community Practice</h1>
<div>
<br />
<a href="http://ctb.ku.edu/en/tablecontents/sub_section_main_1049.htm">SWOT Analysis from Community Toolbox</a></div>
SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-3966254401226088182012-09-18T13:09:00.000-07:002013-03-20T13:31:39.853-07:00License Exam: Human Behavior in the Social Environment (18 %)<h1>
Human Behavior in the Social Environment (18 %) </h1>
<div>
<h4>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_systems_theory" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;" target="_blank">Ecological Systems theory</a></h4>
</div>
<div>
<br />
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.09090805053711px; line-height: 28.792612075805664px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Microsystem</i>: Refers to the institutions and groups that most immediately and directly impact the child's development including: the individual.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>The FAMILY exists between these two (Micro and Mezzo) systems, as it encompasses the individual and close relatives, which forms one unit.</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Mezzosystem:</i> Refers to relations beyond the individual client; generally, a group of people related to the individual. E.g., school, religious institutions, neighborhood, and peers.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><i>Macrosystem:</i> Describes the culture in which individuals live. Cultural contexts include developing and industrialized countries, socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity. A child, his or her parent, his or her school, and his or her parent's workplace, and different levels of government are all part of a large cultural context. Members of a cultural group share a common identity, heritage, and values. The macrosystem evolves over time, because each successive generation may change the macrosystem, leading to their development in a unique macrosystem.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_systems_theory#cite_note-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div>
<h2>
</h2>
</div>
<h1>
Theories of Development</h1>
<div>
</div>
<div>
</div>
<div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_theory" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px;" title="Development theory"><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;">Development</span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;">theory</span></a><br />
<br /></div>
<h2 id="s3" style="background-color: white; clear: left; color: #759c12; font-family: georgia; font-size: 18px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
</h2>
<h2 style="background-color: white; clear: left; color: #759c12; font-family: georgia; font-size: 18px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
Developmental Theories</h2>
<div _idv_element_hash="109685008" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; margin-bottom: 1.5em; margin-top: 3px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.</div>
<ul class="col1" style="background-color: white; clear: left; color: #333333; float: left; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; margin: 0px 29px 1.5em 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; width: 268px; z-index: 0;">
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" zt="18/1]Z">Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development</a> </li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/psychosocial.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" zt="18/1]Z">Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development</a> </li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/piagetstheory/a/keyconcepts.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" zt="18/1]Z">Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development</a> </li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/kohlberg.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" zt="18/1]Z">Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development</a></li>
</ul>
<ul class="col2" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; float: left; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; margin: 0px 0px 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; width: 268px; z-index: 0;">
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/a/attachment01.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" zt="18/1]Z">Attachment Theory</a> </li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/parenting-style.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" zt="18/1]Z">Parenting Styles</a> </li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://video.about.com/psychology/Overview-of-Erikson-s-Theory-of-Psychosocial-Development.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" zt="18/1]Z">Video: Overview of Psychosocial Development</a> </li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 20px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://video.about.com/psychology/Overview-of-the-4-Parenting-Styles.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;" zt="18/1]Z">Video: Four Parenting Styles</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>
</h3>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
</h3>
<strong>See also</strong>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px;" title="Moral development"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Moral </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px;">development</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chickering%27s_theory_of_identity_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Chickering's theory of identity development"><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">theory</span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">of</span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> identity </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">development</span></a> (Chickering), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Piagetian_theories_of_cognitive_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px;" title="Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development">Neo-Piagetian <span class="searchmatch">theories</span> <span class="searchmatch">of</span> cognitive <span class="searchmatch">development</span></a><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"> , </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitive development"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Cognitive </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">development</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_development_theory" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Human development theory"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Human </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">development</span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">theory</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_stage_theories" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Developmental stage theories"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Developmental stage </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">theories</span></a><span style="font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;">, </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_development_theory" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Women's development theory"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Women's </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">development</span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">theory</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_analysis_of_child_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Behavior analysis of child development"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Behavior analysis of child </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">development</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic <span class="searchmatch">theory</span></a><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"> </span><br />
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development" target="_blank">Psychosexual/Psychodynamic Stages of Development</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud">FREUD</a>), </h3>
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width: 810px;"> <tbody>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="144"><div align="center">
<strong><span style="color: #400000;">AGES</span></strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="150"><div align="center">
<strong><span style="color: #400000;">STAGE NAME</span></strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="514"><div align="center">
<strong><span style="color: #400000;">DESCRIPTION</span></strong></div>
</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="144"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">0-2</span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="150"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Oral</strong></span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="514"><span style="color: red;">seeks pleasure through mouth (sucking, chewing)</span><br />
<span style="color: red;">greedy, mistrustful</span></td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="144"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">2-3</span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="150"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Anal</strong></span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="514"><div align="left">
<span style="color: red;">pleasure from excretion (feces)</span></div>
<div align="left">
<span style="color: red;">aggressive</span></div>
<div align="left">
<span style="color: red;">anal retentive</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="144"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">3-6</span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="150"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Phallic</strong></span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="514"><span style="color: red;"><em>Oedipal/Elektra complex</em></span><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="color: red;">attracted to opposite sex parent</span></li>
<li><span style="color: red;">jealousy of same sex parent</span></li>
</ul>
</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="144"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">6-puberty</span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="150"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Latency</strong></span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="514"><div align="left">
<span style="color: red;">sexual impulses overshadowed by need to adapt to environment</span></div>
<div align="left">
<span style="color: red;">drawn to authority figures, avoids relationship with opposite sex parent</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="144"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">puberty onward</span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="150"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;"><strong>Genital</strong></span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="514"><span style="color: red;">sexual impulses become manifest and directed outward</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational-cultural_therapy">Relational Cultural Theory / RCT</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baker_Miller" target="_blank">BAKER-MILLER</a>) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Gilligan">GILLIGAN?</a> </h3>
<h3>
</h3>
<br />
<h3>
Theory of Cognitive Development <span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;"> </span>(PIAGET)</h3>
<h5>
<a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/piagetstheory/Piagets_Stages_of_Cognitive_Development.htm" target="_blank">Stages of Cognitive Development</a> </h5>
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width: 736px;"> <tbody>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
<strong>AGES</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"><div align="center">
<strong>STAGE NAME</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="505"><div align="center">
<strong>DESCRIPTION</strong></div>
</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">0-2</span></div>
<div align="center">
Infancy</div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"><div align="center">
<strong>Sensorimotor</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="505"><span style="color: red;">object permanence </span>(can keep image in mind even if not present), <span style="color: red;">cause & effect awareness</span>, <span style="color: red;">imitates others’ behavior</span>, goal-directed behavior, <br />
<i>Infant behavior follows this cycle</i>: reflexive –> circular reactions –> re-creation –>means-end actions</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">2-6</span></div>
<div align="center">
Young Childhood</div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"><div align="center">
<strong>Preoperational</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="505"><span style="color: red;">egocentricity</span>, <span style="color: red;">stable verbal & mental representations,</span> s<span style="color: red;">ingle character/quality classification </span>(“I have blonde hair”), symbolic function, animism, intuitive thought, magical beliefs, very simple reasoning</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">6-12</span></div>
<div align="center">
Middle Childhood</div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"><div align="center">
<strong>Concrete Operations</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="505"><span style="color: red;">conservation of volume & length</span> (reversibility), <span style="color: red;">ordered characterization</span>, <span style="color: red;">uses simple logic </span>beyond reasoning but limited to real objects, <span style="color: red;">able to compare</span>, increased attention span (necessary for formal education)</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">12+</span></div>
<div align="center">
Adolescence & Young Adulthood, onward</div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"><div align="center">
<strong>Formal Operations</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="505"><span style="color: red;">abstract and symbolic thought,</span> able to think about one’s own thoughts, now uses <span style="color: red;">reasoning skills by rules of formal logic</span> so can compare actual to the ideal and refer to the hypothetical, systematic logic.<br />
<br />
(Not all people go past this stage). </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3>
</h3>
<br />
<h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation-Individuation_theory_of_child_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;" title="Separation-Individuation theory of child development"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;">Separation-Individuation</span></span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;">theory</span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;">of</span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"> child </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;">development</span></a> in pre-Oedipal infancy - from 0 to 3 years (MAHLER)</h3>
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width: 736px;"> <tbody>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
<strong>AGES</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"><div align="center">
<strong>STAGE NAME</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="505"><div align="center">
<strong>DESCRIPTION</strong></div>
</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">0-1 months</span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"><div align="center">
<strong>Autistic</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="505"><br /></td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">4-5 months</span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"><div align="center">
<strong>Symbiosis</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="505"><br /></td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
<span style="color: red;">5-36 months</span></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"><div align="center">
<strong>Separation-Individuation</strong></div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="505"><br />
<ul>
<li>Differention </li>
<li>Practicing motor skills </li>
<li>Rapproachment </li>
<li>Constancy of self and object</li>
</ul>
</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="77"><div align="center">
</div>
</td> <td valign="top" width="152"></td> <td valign="top" width="505"><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br />
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory" target="_blank">Early Attachment Theories</a> </span>(<a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesal/p/john-bowlby.htm" target="_blank">BOWLBY</a>)</h3>
<div>
<span style="color: red;"><b>Stranger anxiety</b>: fearful of strangers.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: red;"><b>Separation anxiety</b>: fear of separation from primary caregivers.</span></div>
<div>
<b><span style="color: red;">Prolonged separation results in protest, despair, and detachment.</span></b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
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<img alt="Attachment Styles" src="http://0.tqn.com/d/psychology/1/5/-/4/attachment2.jpg" /></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bowlby" target="_blank">John Bowlby</a> developed attachment theory. Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_interaction" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Social interaction">social interactions</a> with them, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age. When an infant begins to crawl and walk they begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a secure base to explore from and return to. </div>
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<b>Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment</b>; these, in turn, lead to internal working models which will guide the individual's perceptions, emotions, thoughts and expectations in later relationships.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bretherton.2FMul_1-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory#cite_note-Bretherton.2FMul-1" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup> Separation <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> or grief following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a normal and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaption" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Adaption">adaptive</a> response for an attached infant. These behaviours may have evolved because they increase the probability of survival of the child.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory#cite_note-2" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></div>
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Infant <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Behavior">behaviour</a> associated with attachment is primarily the seeking of <a class="extiw" href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proximity" style="background-image: none; color: #3366bb; text-decoration: none;" title="wikt:proximity">proximity</a> to an attachment figure. To formulate a comprehensive theory of the nature of early attachments, Bowlby explored a range of fields, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_relations_theory" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Object relations theory">object relations theory</a> (a branch of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Systems theory">control systems theory</a>, and the fields of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Ethology">ethology</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none;" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-simpson_3-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory#cite_note-simpson-3" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup> </div>
See also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_in_children" target="_blank">attachment in children on Wikipedia</a> and <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/ss/attachmentstyle.htm">attachment theory on Psychology.About.com</a><br />
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<a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/ss/attachmentstyle.htm"></a><br />
<br /></div>
</div>
<h3>
Attachment Styles (<a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesal/p/ainsworth.htm" target="_blank">AINSWORTH</a>)</h3>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;">Research by </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology" style="background-color: white; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychologist</a><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth" style="background-color: white; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Mary Ainsworth">Mary Ainsworth</a><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"> in the 1960s and 70s reinforced the basic concepts of Bowlby's attachment theory, introduced the concept of the "secure base" and developed a theory of a number of attachment patterns in infants: secure attachment, avoidant attachment and anxious attachment.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bretherton_4-0" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory#cite_note-Bretherton-4" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth#Strange_Situation" target="_blank">Strange Situation</a> was developed to conduct research about attachment styles.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; line-height: 28px;"><br /></span><b _idv_element_hash="109323136" style="background-color: white; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px;"><span style="color: red;">Characteristics of Secure Attachment</span></b><br />
<b _idv_element_hash="109323136" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px;"><br /></b><span _idv_element_hash="109323136" style="background-color: white; font-family: verdana; line-height: 14px;"><span style="color: red; font-size: xx-small;">Mildly upset by caregiver's absence, seeks contact upon return.</span></span><br />
<ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; margin: 1.5em 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; z-index: 0;">
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Securely attached children exhibit distress when separated from caregivers and are happy when their caregiver returns. Remember, these children feel secure and able to depend on their adult caregivers. When the adult leaves, the child may be upset but he or she feels assured that the parent or caregiver will return.<br /> </li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">When frightened, securely attached children will seek comfort from caregivers. These children know their parent or caregiver will provide comfort and reassurance, so they are comfortable seeking them out in times of need.</li>
</ul>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px;" />
<b style="background-color: white; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px;"><span style="color: red;">Characteristics of Insecure (Anxious/Ambivalent) Attachment</span></b> <br />
<div>
<span style="color: red;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Disturbed when left with stranger, ambivalent to caregiver's return.</span></span> <br />
<ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; margin: 1.5em 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; z-index: 0;">
<li style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Ambivalently attached children usually become very distressed when a parent leaves. This attachment style is considered relatively uncommon, affecting an estimated 7-15% of U.S. children. Research suggests that ambivalent attachment is a result of poor maternal availability. These children cannot depend on their mother (or caregiver) to be there when the child is in need.</li>
</ul>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px;" />
<b style="background-color: white; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px;"><span style="color: red;">Characteristics of Avoidant Attachment</span></b></div>
<div>
<span style="color: red;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">No reaction to caregiver's return. ignores her/him.</span></span></div>
<ul style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; margin: 1.5em 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; z-index: 0;">
<li _idv_element_hash="146579680" style="font-family: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents or caregivers. When offered a choice, these children will show no preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger. Research has suggested that this attachment style might be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers. Children who are punished for relying on a caregiver will learn to avoid seeking help in the future.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<b style="background-color: white; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px;"><span style="color: red;">Characteristics of Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment</span></b></div>
<div>
<b style="background-color: white; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px;"><span style="color: red;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px;"><span style="color: red;">Fearful of caregivers, confused facial expressions, often have been mistreated.</span></span></div>
<div>
<div _idv_element_hash="109733488" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 28px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="line-height: 28px;">By</span><span style="line-height: 28px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Main" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Mary Main">Mary Main</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth#cite_note-3" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup><span style="line-height: 28px;"> , child </span><span style="line-height: 28px;">may cry during separation but avoid the mother when she returns or may approach the mother, then freeze or fall to the floor, or rocking to and fro or repeatedly hitting themselves. Main and Hesse</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MaineHesse_5-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth#cite_note-MaineHesse-5" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup><span style="line-height: 28px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 28px;">found that most of the mothers had suffered major losses or trauma before or after the birth and had reacted by becoming severely depressed.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Parkes_4-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth#cite_note-Parkes-4" style="background-image: none; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup><span style="line-height: 28px;"> </span></span></li>
</ul>
<span style="font-size: 19px; line-height: 1em;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MaineHesse_5-1" style="line-height: 1em;"></sup></span></div>
<div>
See also <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/a/attachment01.htm" target="_blank">attachment styles on Psychology.About.com</a></div>
<div>
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<div>
</div>
<h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;" title="Erikson's stages of psychosocial development"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Stages of psychosocial</span></span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px; text-decoration: none;">development</span></a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" target="_blank">ERIKSON</a>)</h3>
<div>
</div>
<b>Stage</b><br />
<b>Basic Conflict</b><br />
<b>Important Events</b><br />
<b>Outcome</b><br />
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width: 755px;"> <tbody>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="86">AGE </td> <td valign="top" width="78">STAGE</td> <td valign="top" width="93">IMPT EVENTS</td> <td valign="top" width="496">OUTCOME</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="86"><span style="color: red;">0-2</span><span style="color: black;">Infancy</span> </td> <td valign="top" width="78"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/trust-versus-mistrust.htm"><strong>Trust vs. Mistrust</strong></a></td> <td valign="top" width="93">Feeding</td> <td valign="top" width="496">Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="86"><span style="color: red;">2-3</span><br />
Early Childhood</td> <td valign="top" width="78"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt.htm"><strong>Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt</strong></a></td> <td valign="top" width="93">Toilet Training</td> <td valign="top" width="496">Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="86"><span style="color: red;">3–6</span> <br />
Preschool </td> <td valign="top" width="78"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/initiative-versus-guilt.htm"><strong>Initiative vs. Guilt</strong></a></td> <td valign="top" width="93">Exploration</td> <td valign="top" width="496">Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="86"><span style="color: red;">6-12</span><br />
School Age </td> <td valign="top" width="78"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/industry-versus-inferiority.htm"><strong>Industry vs. Inferiority</strong></a></td> <td valign="top" width="93">School starts</td> <td valign="top" width="496">Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="86"><span style="color: red;">12-20</span><br />
Adolescence</td> <td valign="top" width="78"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/identity-versus-confusion.htm"><strong>Identity vs. Role Confusion</strong></a></td> <td valign="top" width="93">Social Relationships</td> <td valign="top" width="496">Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="86"><span style="color: red;">20-40</span><br />
Young Adulthood</td> <td valign="top" width="78"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/intimacy-versus-isolation.htm"><strong>Intimacy vs. Isolation</strong></a></td> <td valign="top" width="93">Relationships</td> <td valign="top" width="496">Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="86"><span style="color: red;">40-65</span><br />
Middle Adulthood</td> <td valign="top" width="78"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/generativity-versus-stagnation.htm"><strong>Generativity vs. Stagnation</strong></a></td> <td valign="top" width="93">Work and Parenthood</td> <td valign="top" width="496">Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.</td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="top" width="86"><span style="color: red;">65-death</span><br />
Maturity</td> <td valign="top" width="78"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/integrity-versus-despair.htm"><strong>Ego Integrity vs. Despair</strong></a></td> <td valign="top" width="93">Retirement and Reflection on Life</td> <td valign="top" width="496">Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<strong></strong><br />
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<h3>
<a href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:G-ZvyimtL3IJ:web.augsburg.edu/socialwork/msw/pdfs/CheatSheet.pdf+&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgcB4jbHeBJrfMSU1nSZczzRXItU3JhzUO3ZWvYXRgYt3nyvSuRdhcY2gQovfN8H5hzLU26W-njc1TgBdqrtaIP37dfOSPEyCcWy9LIcnTBu0cJzT6XDCe_JvixkzZq1D35-fnd&sig=AHIEtbSszX2cz1uGa9yWLItn08YDKfwSMw" target="_blank"> Conflict Theory</a></h3>
<div>
<ul>
<li>Draws attention to conflict, dominance, and oppression in social</li>
<li>life.</li>
<li>Groups and individuals try to advance their own interests over the interests of</li>
<li>others.</li>
<li>Power is unequally divided, and some social groups dominate others.</li>
<li>Social order is based on the manipulation and control of nondominant groups</li>
<li>by dominant groups.</li>
<li>Lack of open conflict is a sign of exploitation.</li>
<li>Social change is driven by conflict, with periods of change interrupting long</li>
<li>periods of stability.</li>
</ul>
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<div>
Note: Social workers use this theory to understand clients who are experiencing</div>
<div>
oppression in some form or another in our capitalist society.</div>
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<h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px;" title="Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Stages of moral</span></span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px;">development</span></a> (KOHLBERG)</h3>
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibsonian_ecological_theory_of_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px;" title="Gibsonian ecological theory of development"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Ecological</span></span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;">theory</span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;">of</span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;">development</span></a> (GIBSON)</h3>
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Gibson asserted that development was driven by a complex interaction between environmental<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Affordance">affordances</a> and the motivated humans who perceive them. For example, to an infant, different surfaces "afford" opportunities for walking, crawling, grasping, etc. As children gain motor skills, they discover new opportunities for movement and thus new affordances.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibsonian_ecological_theory_of_development#cite_note-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup> The more chances they are given to perceive and interact with their environment, the more affordances they discover, and the more accurate their perceptions become.</div>
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Gibson identified four important aspects of human behavior that develop:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibsonian_ecological_theory_of_development#cite_note-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup></div>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.09090805053711px; line-height: 28.792612075805664px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Agency- self-control, intentionality in behavior<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Agency is learning to control both one's own activity and external events</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Babies learn at an early age that their actions have an effect on the environment</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">For example: Babies were observed kicking their legs at a mobile hanging above them. They had discovered their kicking made the mobile move.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Prospectivity- intentional, anticipatory, planful, future-oriented behaviors<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">For example: A baby will reach out to try and catch an object moving toward them because the baby can anticipate that the object will continue to move close enough to catch. In other words, the baby perceives that reaching out his/her hand will afford him/her to catch the object.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Search for Order- tendency to see order, regularity, and pattern to make sense of the world<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">For example: Before 9 months, infants begin to recognize the strong-weak stress patterns in their native language</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Flexibility- perception can adjust to new situations and bodily conditions (such as growth, improved motor skills, or a sprained ankle)<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Examples: Three-month-old infants laying under a mobile had a string attached to their right leg and then to the mobile so that when they moved their leg the mobile would move. When the string was switched to the left legs, the infants would easily shift to moving that leg to activate the mobile.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Perception is an on-going, active process.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loevinger%27s_stages_of_ego_development" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 28px;" title="Loevinger's stages of ego development"><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;">Stages of ego</span></span><span style="color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="background-color: #f8fcff; line-height: 28px;"> </span></span><span class="searchmatch" style="background-color: #f8fcff; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 20px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 28px;">development</span></a> (LOEVINGER)</h3>
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SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-12865173103112178372012-09-17T13:40:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:08:23.956-07:00License Exam: Professional and Therapeutic Relationships (5%)<h1>
Professional and Therapeutic Relationships (5%)</h1>
SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-63973224048132913412012-09-17T13:37:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:07:11.591-07:00License Exam: Diversity and Cultural Competency (7%)<h1>
Diversity and Cultural Competency (7%)</h1>
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<b style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; line-height: 28.573333740234375px;">Therapy in a Multicultural social environment</b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; line-height: 28.573333740234375px;"> – Although the theoretical foundations of psychology are rooted in European culture, there is a growing recognition that there exist profound differences between various ethnic and social groups and that systems of psychotherapy need to take those differences into greater consideration.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-laroche_45-1" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-laroche-45" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[46]</a></sup><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; line-height: 28.573333740234375px;"> Further, the generations following immigrant migration will have some combination of two or more cultures—with aspects coming from the parents and from the surrounding society—and this process of</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acculturation" style="background-color: white; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; line-height: 28.573333740234375px; text-decoration: none;" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; line-height: 28.573333740234375px;"> can play a strong role in therapy (and might itself be the presenting problem). Culture influences ideas about change, help-seeking, locus of control, authority, and the importance of the individual versus the group, all of which can potentially clash with certain givens in mainstream psychotherapeutic theory and practice.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-58" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[59]</a></sup><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; line-height: 28.573333740234375px;"> As such, there is a growing movement to integrate knowledge of various cultural groups in order to inform therapeutic practice in a more culturally sensitive and effective way.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-price_59-0" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-price-59" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[60]</a></sup>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_therapy" style="background-color: white; background-image: none; color: #5a3696; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; line-height: 28.573333740234375px; text-decoration: none;" title="Feminist therapy">Feminist therapy</a><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19.200000762939453px; line-height: 28.573333740234375px;"> is an orientation arising from the disparity between the origin of most psychological theories (which have male authors) and the majority of people seeking counseling being female. It focuses on societal, cultural, and political causes and solutions to issues faced in the counseling process. It openly encourages the client to participate in the world in a more social and political way.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-60" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology#cite_note-60" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #5a3696; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[61]</a></sup>
</div>
SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-42265193001469825892012-09-10T14:14:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:08:11.115-07:00License Exam: Professional Values and Ethics (11%)<h2>
Professional Values and Ethics (11%)</h2>
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<div>
<a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/08/nasw-social-work-code-of-ethics-english.html" target="_blank">NASW Code of Ethics</a></div>
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<h3 style="background-color: white; color: #2d5755; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 20px; line-height: 24px; margin: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative;">
Ethical Principles</h3>
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The following broad ethical principles are based on social work’s core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationships, integrity, and competence. These principles set forth ideals to which all social workers should aspire.</div>
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<strong>Value: </strong><em>Service</em></h4>
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<strong>Ethical Principle: </strong><em>Social workers’ primary goal is to help people in need and to address social problems. </em><br />
Social workers elevate service to others above selfinterest. Social workers draw on their knowledge, values, and skills to help people in need and to address social problems. Social workers are encouraged to volunteer some portion of their professional skills with no expectation of significant financial return (pro bono service).</div>
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<strong>Value: </strong><em>Social Justice</em></h4>
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<strong>Ethical Principle: </strong><em>Social workers challenge social injustice. </em><br />
Social workers pursue social change, particularly with and on behalf of vulnerable and oppressed individuals and groups of people. Social workers’ social change efforts are focused primarily on issues of poverty, unemployment, discrimination, and other forms of social injustice. These activities seek to promote sensitivity to and knowledge about oppression and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers strive to ensure access to needed information, services, and resources; equality of opportunity; and meaningful participation in decision making for all people.</div>
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<strong>Value: </strong><em>Dignity and Worth of the Person</em></h4>
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<strong>Ethical Principle: </strong><em>Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the person. </em><br />
Social workers treat each person in a caring and respectful fashion, mindful of individual differences and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers promote clients’ socially responsible selfdetermination. Social workers seek to enhance clients’ capacity and opportunity to change and to address their own needs. Social workers are cognizant of their dual responsibility to clients and to the broader society. They seek to resolve conflicts between clients’ interests and the broader society’s interests in a socially responsible manner consistent with the values, ethical principles, and ethical standards of the profession.</div>
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<strong>Value: </strong><em>Importance of Human Relationships</em></h4>
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<strong>Ethical Principle: </strong><em>Social workers recognize the central importance of human relationships. </em><br />
Social workers understand that relationships between and among people are an important vehicle for change. Social workers engage people as partners in the helping process. Social workers seek to strengthen relationships among people in a purposeful effort to promote, restore, maintain, and enhance the wellbeing of individuals, families, social groups, organizations, and communities.</div>
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<strong>Value: </strong><em>Integrity</em></h4>
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<strong>Ethical Principle: </strong><em>Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner. </em><br />
Social workers are continually aware of the profession’s mission, values, ethical principles, and ethical standards and practice in a manner consistent with them. Social workers act honestly and responsibly and promote ethical practices on the part of the organizations with which they are affiliated.</div>
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<strong>Value: </strong><em>Competence</em></h4>
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<strong>Ethical Principle: </strong><em>Social workers practice within their areas of competence and develop and enhance their professional expertise. </em><br />
Social workers continually strive to increase their professional knowledge and skills and to apply them in practice. Social workers should aspire to contribute to the knowledge base of the profession.</div>
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SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-41252377882207471232012-09-03T14:15:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:45:31.824-07:00License Exam: Assessment and Diagnosis - Treatment Planning (11%)<h1>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">
Assessment and Diagnosis, Treatment Planning (11%)</span></h1>
<div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/09/npr-audio-diagnosis-can-miss-adhd.html" target="_blank">Diagnosis Can Miss ADHD in Girls</a></span></div>
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<a href="http://bpd.about.com/od/glossary/g/DSM.htm">http://bpd.about.com/od/glossary/g/DSM.htm</a><br />
<a href="http://bipolar.about.com/cs/faqs/f/faq_dsm.htm">http://bipolar.about.com/cs/faqs/f/faq_dsm.htm</a>
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<h2>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">
MULTIAXIAL DIAGNOSIS</span></h2>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">In the DSM-IV-TR system, an individual is diagnosed on five different domains, or "axes." The multi-axial system in DSM-IV-TR was developed in part in order to capture more of the complexity surrounding psychiatric conditions. </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><strong>Axis I: Clinical Disorders:</strong> Major psychiatric disorders are diagnosed on Axis I. For example, <a href="http://depression.about.com/od/whatisdepression/tp/facts.htm">major depressive disorder</a> and <a href="http://ptsd.about.com/od/ptsdbasics/a/PTSDoverview.htm">posttraumatic stress disorder</a> disorders of learning, and developmental disabilities. Axis I tends to be reserved for major disorders that are thought to be somewhat episodic </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Axis II: Personality Disorders or Mental Retardation: </b> these are thought to be longer-standing conditions of thinking and behavior that are typically present before age 18. For example, <a href="http://bpd.about.com/od/relatedconditions/a/Personality-Disorders.htm">personality disorders</a> and Mental retardation (or MR). These are chronic conditions separated from Axis I conditions in order to allow them to be highlighted </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Axis III: Medical or Physical Conditions: </b>Axis III is reserved for medical or physical conditions that may affect or be affected by mental health issues. For example, if someone has cancer, and their illness and treatment are affecting their mental health, that would be important information to be conveyed in the diagnosis. </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Axis IV: Contributing Environmental or Psychosocial Factors: </b>Often, a psychiatric diagnosis happens in the context of major environmental or social stressors. For example, job loss, divorce, financial problems, or homelessness. </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><b>Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning: </b>The GAF is a number between 0 and 100 which is meant to indicate level of functioning, or a person's ability to engage in adaptive daily living. Lower scores indicate lower functioning. </span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Click here for the <a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/08/license-exam-multi-axial-diagnosis.html" target="_blank">Expanded text on Multiaxial Diagnosis</a></span><br />
<h2>
<b _idv_element_hash="9171792" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;">Axis I</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"> is reserved for clinical disorders and developmental and learning disorders. Disorders that may be present on Axis I include:</span></h2>
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<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://panicdisorder.about.com/od/understandingpanic/a/PanicBasics.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Panic Disorder</a></li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://gad.about.com/" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Generalized Anxiety Disorder</a></li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://socialanxietydisorder.about.com/" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Social Phobia</a></li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://ocd.about.com/" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder</a></li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://ptsd.about.com/" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Posttraumatic Stress Disorder</a></li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://phobias.about.com/" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Specific Phobia</a></li>
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<b>Axis II</b> is for personality disorders or mental retardation. Disorders that may appear on Axis II include:</div>
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<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://bpd.about.com/od/understandingbpd/a/whatisbpd.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Borderline Personality Disorder</a></li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001531.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" target="_blank" zt="-o1/XJ">Histrionic Personality Disorder</a></li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000941.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" target="_blank" zt="-o1/XJ">Dependent Personality Disorder</a></li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/personalitydisorders/a/obsessivecomp.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder</a></li>
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<b>Axis III</b> is for medical and/or physical conditions or disorders. For example:</div>
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<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://thyroid.about.com/od/hyperthyroidismgraves/a/overview.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Hyperthyroidism</a></li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;"><a href="http://heartdisease.about.com/cs/mvp/a/MVP.htm" style="color: #3366cc; cursor: pointer; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Mitral Valve Prolapse</a> (MVP)</li>
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<b>Axis IV</b> indicates factors contributing to, or affecting, the current psychiatric disorder and treatment outcomes. These include:</div>
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<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;">Lack of an adequate support system</li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;">Social issues</li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;">Educational problems</li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;">Problems with work</li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;">Financial difficulties</li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;">Legal problems</li>
<li style="font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px 0px 0px 18px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: inherit;">Other psychosocial and environmental problems</li>
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<b>Axis V</b> is for the GAF or global assessment functioning. This is a 100-point scale that the mental health professional uses to describe the patient’s overall level of performance in usual daily activities and social, occupational, academic and interpersonal functioning.</div>
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<sub style="bottom: -0.5em; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Source:</sub></div>
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American Psychiatric Association. "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed., text revision" 2000 Washington, DC: Author. </div>
<h2>
<span style="color: #0080c0;">DSM <strong><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5084443425316768435" name="[ ]">Decision Trees for Differential Diagnosis</a></strong></span></h2>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The purpose of these decision trees is to aid the clinician in understanding the organization and hierarchical structure of the DSM-IV Classification. Each decision tree starts with a set of clinical features. When one of these features is a prominent part of the presenting clinical picture, the clinician can follow the series of questions to rule in or rule out various disorders. </span><br />
<a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/GMC.htm"><span style="color: #0b5394;">I. Differential Diagnosis of Mental Disorders Due to a General Medical Condition</span></a><br />
<a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/Substance.htm"><span style="color: #0b5394;">II. Differential Diagnosis of Substance-Induced Disorders</span></a><br />
<a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/Psychotic.htm"><span style="color: #0b5394;">III. Differential Diagnosis of Psychotic Disorders</span></a><br />
<a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/mood.htm"><span style="color: #0b5394;">IV. Differential Diagnosis of Mood Disorders</span></a><br />
<a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/anxiety.htm"><span style="color: #0b5394;">V. Differential Diagnosis of Anxiety Disorders</span></a><br />
<a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/somatoform.htm"><span style="color: #0b5394;">VI. Differential Diagnosis of Somatoform Disorders</span></a><br />
<a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/08/license-exam-differential-diagnosis.html" target="_blank"><strong>Click here for expanded text on Differential Diagnosis</strong></a><br />
<h2>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Mental/Behavioral Health DISORDERS</span></h2>
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<h3>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Mood and Anxiety Disorders</span></h3>
<span style="color: #0b5394;"> </span><a href="http://ptsd.about.com/od/ptsdbasics/a/PTSDoverview.htm">http://ptsd.about.com/od/ptsdbasics/a/PTSDoverview.htm</a><br />
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<a href="http://depression.about.com/od/whatisdepression/tp/facts.htm">http://depression.about.com/od/whatisdepression/tp/facts.htm</a>
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<h3>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">Personality Disorders</span></h3>
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<a href="http://bpd.about.com/od/relatedconditions/a/Personality-Disorders.htm">http://bpd.about.com/od/relatedconditions/a/Personality-Disorders.htm</a>
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<div>
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #0b5394;">The DSM-IV-TR states that <strong>Borderline Personality Disorder</strong> (BPD) is an Axis II disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions/affects. The diagnostic criteria for BPD is that it is manifested by 5 or more symptoms, such as inappropriate, intense anger, fear of abandonment, impulsive self-damaging behaviors, suicidal threats and gestures, and chronic feelings of emptiness. People with BPD may have a tendency to themselves and others as all good or all bad, with no grey areas; this is termed “splitting.”</span><br />
<span style="color: #0b5394;"><br /></span>
<a href="http://bpd.about.com/od/relatedconditions/a/Narcissistic-Personality-Disorder.htm">http://bpd.about.com/od/relatedconditions/a/Narcissistic-Personality-Disorder.htm</a>
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AUTISM<br />
<a href="http://autism.about.com/od/whatisautism/a/symptoms.htm">http://autism.about.com/od/whatisautism/a/symptoms.htm</a>
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<br />SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-29194833923419526072012-08-27T13:01:00.001-07:002012-08-27T13:24:44.516-07:00Behavioral Theory (Behaviorism)<h1>
Behavioral Theory (Behaviorism)</h1>
We practice with human beings in their <i>social environments</i>, so this comment from the founding father of Behaviorism speaks volumes about the causes of human behavior and thought, as well as methods we can employ to assist them in changing those very things that challenge them: <br />
<blockquote>
<i>Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. </i>--John Watson, 1930</blockquote>
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Behavioral theory is based on the belief that <strong>behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed</strong>. This theory of learning is based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our behaviors. There are two major types of conditioning that produce behavior: <strong>Operant conditioning and Classical (Pavlovian or Respondent) Conditioning.</strong><br />
<h2>
Operant conditioning</h2>
(AKA <strong>instrumental conditioning</strong>) A method of learning that occurs through <strong>rewards and punishments for behavior</strong>. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Coined by behaviorist <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_skinner.htm">B.F. Skinner</a>, he believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior. Skinner used the term <i>operant</i> to refer to any "active <strong>behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences</strong>" (1953). In other words, Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day (<strong>Learning Theory</strong>). Examples include: children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. <strong>Removal of a desirable outcome or the use of punishment</strong> can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, the loss of recess privileges or additional homework as punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.<br />
<blockquote>
<h3>
Reinforcement</h3>
<b><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/reinforcement.htm"></a></b>is any event that <strong>strengthens or increases the behavior</strong> it follows: </blockquote>
<ol> <ol>
<li><b><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/positive-reinforcement.htm">Positive reinforcers</a></b> are <strong>favorable outcomes</strong> that are presented or <strong>added</strong> after the behavior, such as praise or a direct reward. </li>
<li><b><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/negative-reinforcement.htm">Negative reinforcers</a></b> involve the <strong>removal</strong> <strong>of an unfavorable outcome</strong> after the display of a behavior. </li>
</ol>
</ol>
<blockquote>
<h3>
Punishment</h3>
on the other hand, is the <strong>presentation of an adverse outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior</strong> it follows. </blockquote>
<ol> <ol>
<li><b><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/positive-punishment.htm">Positive punishment</a></b>, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows, such as “time out.”. </li>
<li><b><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/operantconditioning/f/negative-punishment.htm">Negative punishment</a></b>, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an <strong>favorable event or outcome is removed</strong> after a behavior occurs, such as the denial of recess time.</li>
</ol>
</ol>
<h2>
Classical conditioning</h2>
Although <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning">operant conditioning</a><b></b> plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning">classical conditioning</a> (or <strong>Pavlovian conditioning or <span style="color: red;">respondent conditioning</span></strong>) is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response, then substituted with different stimulus. Eventually, the new stimulus comes to evoke the response. The two elements are then known as the <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/condstim.htm"><strong>conditioned stimulus</strong></a><strong> and the conditioned response</strong>. Pavlov's experiments, the dog was presented with a stimulus such as a light or a sound, and then food was placed in the dog's mouth. After a few repetitions of this sequence, the light or sound by itself caused the dog to salivate.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism#cite_note-18">[19]</a></sup> <br />
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<h1>
The Little Albert Experiment (Classical conditioning by Watson)</h1>
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<ul> Around the age of nine months, Watson exposed the child to a series of stimuli including a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, masks and burning newspapers and observed the boy's reactions. The boy initially showed no fear of any of the objects he was shown.<br />
The next time Albert was exposed the rat, Watson made a loud noise by hitting a metal pipe with a hammer. Naturally, the child began to cry after hearing the loud noise. After repeatedly pairing the white rat with the loud noise, Albert began to cry simply after seeing the rat.<br />
The Little Albert experiment presents and example of how <a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/classcond.htm">classical conditioning</a> can be used to condition an emotional response.<br />
<ul></ul>
<li> <b>Neutral Stimulus:</b> The white rat<br />
</li>
<li> <b><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/uindex/g/unconditioned.htm">Unconditioned Stimulus</a>:</b> The loud noise<br />
</li>
<li> <b><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/uindex/g/uncondstim.htm">Unconditioned Response</a>:</b> Fear<br />
</li>
<li> <b><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/condstim.htm">Conditioned Stimulus</a>:</b> The white rat<br />
</li>
<li> <b><a href="http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/condresp.htm">Conditioned Response</a>:</b> Fear</li>
</ul>
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SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-56866776373334488362012-08-27T11:56:00.001-07:002012-08-27T11:56:07.180-07:00Family Therapy<h4>Family Therapy</h4>The family is a <b>psychological unit</b>, in which changes in one member affect other members and the <b>family's functioning</b>. Family therapy is geared toward helping individual members become aware of their defensive reactions and to <b>communicate </b>more openly with each other; it usually focuses on present problems and their practical solutions. Families are also <b>self-regulating</b> and tend toward <b>homeostasis</b>, though returning to it may bring about additional challenges. A family is a <b>multi-generational</b> network, that employs its <b>cultural beliefs</b>. Family therapy is inappropriate in circumstances where <b>domestic/family violence</b>, destructive behavior, or abuse between members is present. <br><br><b>Types of family therapy</b>:<br><br> <ul> <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_systems_therapy" target="_blank">Family Systems</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Bowen" target="_blank">Bowen</a>) <li>Experiential (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Satir" target="_blank">Satir</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Whitaker" target="_blank">Whitaker</a>) <ul> <li><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">Experiential therapists are interested in altering the overt and covert messages between family members that affect their body, mind and feelings in order to promote congruence and to validate each person’s inherent self-worth. </span>C<span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">hange and growth occurs through an existential encounter with a therapist who is intentionally “real” and authentic with clients without pretense</span></li></ul> <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_therapy" target="_blank">Narrative </a>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Epston" target="_blank">Epston</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_White_(psychotherapist)" target="_blank">White</a>) <ul> <li><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">People use stories to make sense of their experience and to establish their identity as a social and political constructs based on local knowledge. Narrative therapists avoid marginalizing their clients by positioning themselves as a co-editor of their reality with the idea that “the person is not the problem, but the problem is the problem.”</span></li></ul> <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_therapy" target="_blank">Strategic </a>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Haley" target="_blank">Haley</a>, Madanes) <ul> <li><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">Symptoms of dysfunction are purposeful in maintaining homeostasis in the family hierarchy as it transitions through various stages in the family life cycle.</span></li></ul> <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_family_therapy" target="_blank">Structural</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador_Minuchin" target="_blank">Minuchin</a>) <ul> <li><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">Family problems arise from maladaptive boundaries and subsystems that are created within the overall family system of rules and rituals that governs their interactions.</span></li></ul> <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_focused_brief_therapy" target="_blank">Solution-Focused</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_de_Shazer" target="_blank">de Shazer</a>) <ul> <li><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">The inevitable onset of constant change leads to negative interpretations of the past and language that shapes the meaning of an individual’s situation, diminishing their hope and causing them to overlook their own strengths and resources.</span></li></ul> <li>Psychodynamic (Scharff) <ul> <li><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">By applying the strategies of Freudian psychoanalysis to the family system therapists can gain insight into the interlocking</span><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px"> </span><a style="background-image: none; line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; color: #0b0080; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none" title="Psychopathology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathology">psychopathologies</a><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px"> </span><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">of the family members and seek to improve complementarity. </span><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px"></span><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">Individuals choose relationships that attempt to heal insecure attachments from childhood. Negative patterns established by their parents (object) are projected onto their partners.</span></li></ul> <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Satir" target="_blank">Communications Model</a> (Jackson, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Haley" target="_blank">Haley</a>) <ul> <li><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">All people are born into a primary survival triad between themselves and their parents where they adopt survival stances to protect their self-worth from threats communicated by words and behaviors of their family members. </span></li></ul> <li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_therapy" target="_blank">Feminist</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Bem" target="_blank">Bern</a>) <ul> <li><span style="line-height: 24px; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 16px">Complications from social and political disparity between genders are identified as underlying causes of conflict within a family system. Therapists are encouraged to be aware of these influences in order to avoid perpetuating hidden oppression, biases and cultural stereotypes and to model an egalitarian perspective of healthy family relationships.</span></li></ul></li></ul> <div><br></div> <div>See also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_therapy" target="_blank">Family Therapy on Wikipedia</a></div> SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-19589142420518229682012-08-27T11:26:00.001-07:002012-09-28T11:03:11.991-07:00Test-taking strategies and tips<h1>
Test-taking strategies and tips</h1>
<ul>
<li>If you have a disability (physical, mental or attention challenges?), you may be able to request extra time in which to finish the exam. </li>
<li>Use the <a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/08/nasw-social-work-code-of-ethics-english.html">Code of Ethics</a> as a lens through which you view the questions. </li>
<li>Look at the situation presented in each question as part of the <a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/07/the-social-work-intervention-model.html">Social Work Intervention Model / Problem-Solving Method</a>, deciding which tasks must happen before others in the process. </li>
<li>Answer all questions. Leave none blank. </li>
<li>Practice breathing exercises to reduce anxiety </li>
<li>Flag questions to review later, but do it judiciously; save time at the end of the test period to go back.. </li>
<li>Take breaks to clear your mind, refocus, get some exercise, and reduce anxiety </li>
<li>Positive Thoughts - see it in your mind's eye - FTW! </li>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://socialworkerinthesouth.blogspot.com/2010/11/i-passed-exam-just-call-me-southern.html">Read one social worker's experience of taking the exam and passing it</a></li>
</ul>
<li>If by some chance you do not pass the first time, make sure to get a copy of the diagnostic information from the failed test, which will outline the areas on which an exam review should focus. </li>
<li>Notes from the author of <a href="http://www.socialworkexamhelp.com/">www.socialworkexamhelp.com</a>/study-tips.html </li>
<ul>
<li>take your time, use all the time allowed </li>
<li>decide who the client is and consider what's in the client's best interest </li>
<li>what's the <a href="http://staciehebert.blogspot.com/2012/07/the-social-work-intervention-model.html">process in social work</a>? use this as the main lens!</li>
</ul>
<li>More study tips from the <a href="http://www.lcswstudygroup.com/" target="_blank">LCSW Study Group</a></li>
</ul>
SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-48553709825940625872012-08-15T13:55:00.000-07:002012-08-23T22:24:13.451-07:00License Exam: Multi-axial Diagnosis<a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=Multi-Axial+Diagnosis" target="_blank">More links </a><br />
<h2>
MULTIAXIAL DIAGNOSIS</h2>
In the DSM-IV-TR system, an individual is diagnosed on five different
domains, or "axes." In a single axis system, an individual would be diagnosed in
just one domain (for example, a clinical disorder, such as major depressive
disorder, would be assigned). This, however, conveys very limited information
on what can be a very complex clinical picture. The multi-axial system in
DSM-IV-TR was developed in part in order to capture more of the complexity
surrounding psychiatric conditions. In the DSM-IV-TR, each axis can convey
important information about both the symptoms experienced by the individual and
the context surrounding those symptoms.
<br />
<br />
<h3>
Axis I: Clinical Disorders</h3>
Major psychiatric disorders are diagnosed on Axis I. When you think of a
"psychiatric diagnosis," these are the kinds of disorders that probably come to
mind. For example, <a href="http://depression.about.com/od/whatisdepression/tp/facts.htm">major
depressive disorder</a> and<a href="http://ptsd.about.com/od/ptsdbasics/a/PTSDoverview.htm">posttraumatic
stress disorder</a> are diagnosed on Axis I. Disorders of learning, such as
reading or arithmetic disorders, and developmental disabilities, such as<a href="http://autism.about.com/od/whatisautism/a/symptoms.htm">autistic
disorder</a>, are also diagnosed on Axis I. Axis I tends to be reserved for
major disorders that are thought to be somewhat episodic (i.e., they typically
have a clear onset and periods of remission or recovery). But, this is not true
of all Axis I disorders (e.g., autistic disorder is not an episodic condition).
<br />
<br />
<h3>
<b>Axis II: Personality Disorders or Mental Retardation</b></h3>
Axis II also includes some conditions that we might consider "psychiatric
disorders," but these are thought to be longer-standing conditions that are
typically present before age 18. The <a href="http://bpd.about.com/od/relatedconditions/a/Personality-Disorders.htm">personality
disorders</a> are longstanding, pervasive patterns of thinking and behavior that
usually appear before the age of 18 but are typically diagnosed after 18 (when
the personality is considered more fully formed). These disorders are not
thought of as episodic; they are considered stable and chronic (although there
is some <a href="http://bpd.about.com/od/faqs/f/PrognosisFAQ.htm">recent
research suggesting otherwise</a>). Mental retardation (or MR) is also a
long-standing condition (it must be present before the age of 18) that is stable
over time. MR refers to significantly below average intellectual functioning
combined with deficits in adaptive behavior. One rationale for the diagnosis of
personality disorders and MR on Axis II is that these are chronic conditions
that should be separated from Axis I conditions in order to allow them to be
highlighted, since they convey important additional diagnostic information.
There is some controversy, however, about whether personality disorders are
truly qualitatively different than Axis I clinical disorders, and whether they
should remain on Axis II.
<br />
<br />
<h3>
<b>Axis III: Medical or Physical Conditions</b></h3>
Axis III is reserved for medical or physical conditions that may affect or be
affected by mental health issues. For example, if someone has cancer, and their
illness and treatment are affecting their mental health, that would be important
information to be conveyed in the diagnosis. So, the cancer diagnosis would be
included on Axis III. Alternatively, someone might have a medical condition
that is impacted by their mental health. For example, someone with diabetes
might not comply with their medical treatment regimen if they have a psychiatric
disorder that causes impulsive or erratic behavior. Diagnosing the medical
illness on Axis III might alert a clinician of a potential problem.
<br />
<h3>
<br /><b>Axis IV: Contributing Environmental or Psychosocial Factors</b></h3>
Often, a psychiatric diagnosis happens in the context of major environmental
or social stressors. For example, job loss, divorce, financial problems, or
homelessness may contribute to the development or maintenance of a mental health
condition (alternatively, a psychiatric disorder can contribute to the
development of these stressors). These important contextual factors are coded on
Axis IV.
<br />
<br />
<h3>
<b>Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning</b></h3>
The last axis, Axis V, is reserved for the global assessment of functioning,
or GAF. The GAF is a number between 0 and 100 which is meant to indicate level
of functioning, or a person's ability to engage in adaptive daily living. Lower
scores indicate lower functioning, with a score of zero indicating that a person
is incapable or maintaining their own safety or basic hygiene, or is an imminent
threat to the safety or welfare of others. Scores near 100 indicate superior
functioning.
<br />
<br />
<h4>
<sub>Sources:</sub></h4>
<sub><a href="http://www.psych.org/">American Psychiatric Association</a>.
<i>Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed, text
revision.</i>Washington, DC, Author, 2000.</sub>
<br />
<sub>Bernstein, DP, Iscan, C, Maser, J, Board of Directors, Association for
Research in Personality Disorder, & Board of Directors, International
Society for the Study of Personality Disorders. "Opinions of personality
disorder experts regarding the DSM-IV Personality Disorders classification
system." <i>Journal of Personality Disorders</i>, 21:536-551, 2007.</sub>
<br />
<br />SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-58927244327297967542012-08-13T14:09:00.000-07:002012-08-23T22:17:57.891-07:00License Exam: Differential Diagnosis Decision Trees<br />
<h2>
DSM <strong>Decision Trees for Differential
Diagnosis</strong></h2>
The purpose of these decision trees is to aid the clinician in
understanding the organization and hierarchical structure of the DSM-IV
Classification. Each decision tree starts with a set of clinical features. When
one of these features is a prominent part of the presenting clinical picture,
the clinician can follow the series of questions to rule in or rule out various
disorders. Note that the questions are only approximations of the diagnostic
criteria and are not meant to replace them.<br />
<br />
The Psychotic Disorders decision tree is the only one that contains
disorders that are mutually exclusive (i.e., only one disorder from that section
can be diagnosed in a given individual for a particular episode). For the other
decision trees, it is important to refer to the individual criteria sets to
determine when more than one diagnosis may apply.
<br />
<br />
<strong>Contents</strong><strong><br /></strong>
<br />
<h4>
<strong><a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/GMC.htm">I. Differential Diagnosis
of Mental Disorders Due to a General Medical Condition</a></strong></h4>
<h4>
<strong><a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/Substance.htm">II. Differential
Diagnosis of Substance-Induced Disorders</a></strong></h4>
<h4>
<strong><a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/Psychotic.htm">III. Differential
Diagnosis of Psychotic Disorders</a></strong></h4>
<h4>
<strong><a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/mood.htm">IV. Differential
Diagnosis of Mood Disorders</a></strong></h4>
<h4>
<strong><a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/anxiety.htm">V. Differential
Diagnosis of Anxiety Disorders</a></strong></h4>
<h4>
<strong><a href="http://202.30.0.11/~lmk/somatoform.htm">VI. Differential
Diagnosis of Somatoform Disorders</a></strong></h4>
SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5084443425316768435.post-20488177205045186212012-08-06T15:12:00.000-07:002012-09-28T11:04:09.702-07:00License Exam: Community Practice<h1>
Community Practice</h1>
<a href="http://ctb.ku.edu/en/tablecontents/sub_section_main_1049.htm">SWOT Analysis from Community Toolbox</a>SEHhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11275497174000780795noreply@blogger.com0