Tuesday, December 11, 2012

News: ADHD Can Cause Lifelong Problems, Study Finds - US News and World Report

ADHD Can Cause Lifelong Problems, Study Finds


Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder that persists into adulthood may affect physical and mental health


If children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, continue to have the condition in adulthood, a new study suggests that they may face an array of physical and mental health issues.
The study, which spanned more than 30 years, found that people who had ADHD as teens and adults face a greater risk of stress, work problems, financial troubles, physical health issues and additional mental health issues, such as depression or antisocial personality disorder.  
They also had difficulty in terms of work and experienced a great deal of financial stress.  82 percent higher odds of having impaired physical health. They were also more than twice as likely to have another mental health problem
 The study included 551 children. Seventy-two of those children were diagnosed with ADHD in 1975 when they were between the ages of 14 and 16. The researchers followed up with the children as they grew, and the final of five outcome surveys was given at an average age of 37.

ADHD Study - US News and World Report 

Monday, October 1, 2012

License Exam: Service Delivery (9%)

Service Delivery (9%)

License Exam: Practice Questions

ASWB License Exam Practice Questions 



More Links for Questions



Quizzes from SW Exam Zone
Socialworkexam.com Daily Q
Facebook Group
Social Work Test Prep
Linked In Group
SW Exam Zone LINKS to practice question sites






NOTE: Answers are displayed in the same color font as the background, in order to hide them as you try to answer the question on your own. Select the paragraph under the heading "ANSWER:" in order to read the answer as highlighted text.




1. QUESTION: Your client has been diagnosed with schizophrenia and has been prescribed an antipsychotic drug - a phenothiazine called Thorazine (Chlorpromazine). Which of the following side-effects is the client MOST LIKELY to experience as a result of taking this medication? 

A. Clouded consciousness.
B. Drowsiness.
C. Agitation.
D. Dizziness.


ANSWER: 
B is correct: Antipsychptic drugs are also called "major tranquilizers."  Thorazine (or Chlorpromazine) will cause sedation and drowsiness in about 40 percent of people, especially during the first two weeks. The other sjde effects may occur when taking phenothiazines but in very small percentages (under 10%).



2. QUESTION: You are conducting an initial session of family therapy with your new clients.  The mother tells the daughter that she is the cause of the family's problems.  What would be the FIRST APPROPRIATE action?

A. ask the daughter to step outside

B. reschedule a session with the mother and father
C. ask the mother about her feelings
D. ask the father about his opinion

ANSWER:
C is the first appropriate action to take.  A family is a unit and therefore should not exclude the daughter from sessions.  When family therapy is appropriate, the family functions together and must address its issues as a whole.  Asking the mother to elaborate about her feelings surrounding her statement will help the family to clarify its challenges so they can address them.  A father was not discussed in the question and must not be assumed to be a member of this family, as families come in all types of configurations.

This answer is a good example of how to use the Social Work Intervention Model / Problem-Solving Method
ENGAGE >; COLLECT INFO > ASSESS / DIAGNOSE > SET GOALS and PLAN TREATMENT > EVALUATE > TERMINATE.  In this stage of the treatment, social workers engage and collect info in order to make an assessment of the family's needs.




3. QUESTION: The reliability coefficient of a set of scores is 0.75.  What does this coefficient mean?

A. 25% of variability is due to true score differences
B. 75% of variability is due to true score differences
C. 25% of reliability is due to true score differences
D. 75% of reliability is due to true score differences

ANSWER:
B is the correct answer.  In statistics, reliability is the consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces consistent results under consistent conditions. For example, measurements of people’s height and weight.  Reliability does not imply validity. That is, a reliable measure that is measuring something consistently, may not be measuring what you want to be measuring.  Reliability theory shows that the variance of obtained scores is simply the sum of the variance of true scores plus the variance of errors of measurement[5]. The reliability coefficient \rho_{xx'} provides an index of the relative influence of true and error scores on attained test scores. In its general form, the reliability coefficient is defined as the ratio of true score variance to the total variance of test scores.  Unfortunately, there is no way to directly observe or calculate the true score, so a variety of methods are used to estimate the reliability of a test.  Some examples of the methods to estimate reliability include test-retest reliability, internal consistency reliability, and parallel-test reliability.  



4. QUESTION: A client of yours has episodes of intense temper.  This symptom is part of which DSM-IV-TR diagnosis?

A. Borderline Personality Disorder
B. Antisocial Personality Disorder
C. Narcissistic Personality Disorder
D. Dependent Personality Disorder

ANSWER:
The answer is A.  The DSM criteria for diagnosis of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is indicated by 5 or more symptoms related to a pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions/affects, such as number 8: inappropriate, intense anger.  Other symptoms deal with fear of abandonment, impulsive self-damaging behaviors, suicidal threats and gestures, and chronic feelings of emptiness.  People with BPD may have a tendency to themselves and others as all good or all bad, with no grey areas; this is termed “splitting.”


5.  QUESTION:

ANSWER:

Friday, September 28, 2012

NPR: Gender Bias in Books -- Women, Men And Fiction

Women, Men And Fiction: 

Notes On How Not To Answer Hard Questions

Listen to the Story


Nothing is more vexing than a question where 10 percent of the public discussion is spent trying to answer it and 90 percent is spent arguing about whether it matters.
Such is the question of why, in many major publications, far more books by men are reviewed than books by women. Probably the best-known set of statistics comes from an organization called VIDA (Women in the Literary Arts), which has created a feature called "The Count." That feature consists of pie charts that track the number of women and men both doing the reviewing and being reviewed. For instance, in 2011, they found that The New York Review Of Books reviewed 71 female authors and 293 male authors. In The New York Times, it was 273 women and 520 men.

Those in power, sometimes unaware of their privilege, are the ones who question whether this list and these activities matter.  In our very gender-ed social culture, that's men.  

Tuesday, September 25, 2012

License Exam: Research and Evaluation (2%)

Research and Evaluation (2%)


.. In statistics, reliability is the consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces consistent results under consistent conditions. For example, measurements of people’s height and weight. Reliability does not imply validity. That is, a reliable measure that is measuring something consistently, may not be measuring what you want to be measuring. Reliability theory shows that the variance of obtained scores is simply the sum of the variance of true scores plus the variance of errors of measurement[5]. The reliability coefficient \rho_{xx'} provides an index of the relative influence of true and error scores on attained test scores. In its general form, the reliability coefficient is defined as the ratio of true score variance to the total variance of test scores. Unfortunately, there is no way to directly observe or calculate the true score, so a variety of methods are used to estimate the reliability of a test. Some examples of the methods to estimate reliability include test-retest reliability, internal consistency reliability, and parallel-test reliability.




Monday, September 24, 2012

License Exam: Clinical Practice

Clinical Theories and Interventions

Links



Theories


 

Therapy / Counseling


 

Group Therapy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_psychotherapy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamics
 

Behavioral Theory / Behaviorism (WATSON, SKINNER)

Behavioral Theory (Behaviorism) , Behaviorism , Behavior Therapy
We practice with human beings in their social environments, so this comment from one of the founding fathers of Behaviorism speaks volumes about the causes of human behavior, as well as methods we can employ to assist them in changing those very things that challenge them:
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.         --John Watson, 1930
Behavioral theory is based on the belief  that our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our behaviors.  There are two major types of conditioning that produce behavior: Operant conditioning - a method of learning that occurs through rewards (reinforcements) and punishments for behavior, and Classical (Pavlovian or Respondent) Conditioning) where a stimulus is paired with a response to produce a behavior.  See also Behaviorism on Wikipedia
Major Thinkers in Behaviorism: Ivan Pavlov , B. F. Skinner , Edward Thorndike  John B. Watson , Clark Hull .
 


REBT / Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy  (ELLIS)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REBT
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)
 


Family Therapy

Family Therapy
The family is a psychological unit, in which changes in one member affect other members and the family's functioning.  Therapy usually focuses on present problems and their practical solutions, in the context of its cultural beliefs.  Family therapy is inappropriate in circumstances where destructive behavior or abuse is present.  See also Family Therapy on Wikipedia

Types of family therapy: Family Systems (Bowen) , Experiential (Satir, Whitaker) , Narrative (Epston, White), Strategic (Haley, Madanes), Structural (Minuchin), Solution-Focused (de Shazer) , Psychodynamic (Scharff), Communications Model (Jackson, Haley), Feminist (Bern)
 

Reality Therapy (GLASSER)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_therapy

 

Feminist Therapy (BEM, MILLER, BROWN, JORDAN)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_therapy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Bem

License Exam: Supervision, Administration, and Policy (8%)

Supervision, Administration, and Policy (8%)

License Exam: Communication (7%)

Communication (7%)

Sunday, September 23, 2012

License Exam: Direct and Indirect Practice - Micro and Macro (22%)

Direct and Indirect Practice - Micro and Macro (22%)

Clinical Practice

Community Practice


Clinical Practice

Clinical Theories and Interventions


 




Behavioral Theory / Behaviorism (WATSON, SKINNER)

Behavioral Theory (Behaviorism) , Behaviorism , Behavior Therapy
We practice with human beings in their social environments, so this comment from one of the founding fathers of Behaviorism speaks volumes about the causes of human behavior, as well as methods we can employ to assist them in changing those very things that challenge them:
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. --John Watson, 1930
Behavioral theory is based on the belief that our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our behaviors. There are two major types of conditioning that produce behavior: Operant conditioning - a method of learning that occurs through rewards (reinforcements) and punishments for behavior, and Classical (Pavlovian or Respondent) Conditioning) where a stimulus is paired with a response to produce a behavior. See also Behaviorism on Wikipedia.
Its roots are in behaviorism. In behavior therapy, environmental events predict the way we think and feel. Our behavior sets up conditions for the environment to feed back on it. Sometimes the feedback leads the behavior to increase (reinforcement), and sometimes the behavior decreases (punishment).


Ecological Theory

Therapy focuses on the social environment, which contains the causes of one’s life challenges.


Ego Psychology (HARTMANN)

Ego psychology
Therapy focuses on providing ego support.  common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.


Cognitive Theory (BECK) and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy / CBT  (MICHENBAUM)

grew out of cognitive psychology and behaviorism.  CBT is based on the theory that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion), and how we act (behavior) are related and interact together.  Dysfunctional ways of interpreting and appraising the world (often through schemas or beliefs) can contribute to emotional distress or result in behavioral problems.  Behavior will follow one’s thoughts and reasoning about the world, so thoughts are the target of change. Therapy might include  worksheets to record distressing cognitions, in order to dispute and reframe them into more realistic, less threatening positive thoughts.  Taking action itself will also in some cases help to disprove unrealistic beliefs that we act on, causing negative consequences for our self-esteem and relationships.  Focus is on making changes in how one thinks and acts.  The object of many cognitive behavioral therapies is to discover and identify the biased, dysfunctional ways of relating or reacting and through different methodologies help clients transcend these in ways that will lead to increased well-being.[50] There are many techniques used, such as systematic desensitization, socratic questioning, and keeping a cognition observation log. Modified approaches that fall into the category of CBT have also developed, including dialectical behavior therapy and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.[51]

Existential Psychology (FRANKL, MAY, YALOM)

existential psychology
postulates that people are largely free to choose who we are and how we interpret and interact with the world. It intends to help the client find deeper meaning in life and to accept responsibility for living. As such, it addresses fundamental issues of life, such as death, aloneness, and freedom. The therapist emphasizes the client's ability to be self-aware, freely make choices in the present, establish personal identity and social relationships, create meaning, and cope with the natural anxiety of living.[54] Important writers in existential therapy include Rollo May,Victor Frankl, James Bugental, and Irvin Yalom.



Group Dynamics and Therapy (YALOM)

Stages of Group Development
ORDER
STAGE NAME
DESCRIPTION of Milestones
1
Pre-affiliation
development of trust
2
Power & Control
struggles for individual autonomy vs. group affiliation
3
Intimacy
utilize self to serve others, AKA “norming”
4
Differentiation
acceptance of others and self as distinct individuals

Social Identity Theory (TAJFEL)
Social identity is dependent on group affiliation.  People inherently over-value their own groups because it enhances their self-esteem.  We naturally favor the ingroup.

Family Therapy (Johnson, Satir , Gottman, Haley)

The family is a psychological unit, in which changes in one member affect other members and the family's functioning. Family therapy is geared toward helping individual members become aware of their defensive reactions and to communicate more openly with each other; it usually focuses on present problems and their practical solutions. Families are also self-regulating and tend toward homeostasis, though returning to it may bring about additional challenges. A family is a multi-generational network, that employs its cultural beliefs. Family therapy is inappropriate in circumstances where domestic/family violence, destructive behavior, or abuse between members is present. Systems or family therapy works with couples and families, and emphasizes family relationships as an important factor in psychological health. The central focus tends to be on interpersonal dynamics, especially in terms of how change in one person will affect the entire system.[53] Therapy is therefore conducted with as many significant members of the "system" as possible. Goals can include improving communication, establishing healthy roles, creating alternative narratives, and addressing problematic behaviors.

Types of family therapy: Family Systems (Bowen) , Experiential (Satir, Whitaker) , Narrative (Epston, White), Strategic (Haley, Madanes), Structural (Minuchin), Solution-Focused (de Shazer) , Psychodynamic (Scharff), Communications Model (Jackson, Haley), Feminist (Bern)


Feminist Therapy (BEM, MILLER, BROWN, JORDAN)


Feminist therapy is an orientation arising from the disparity between the origin of most psychological theories (which have male authors) and the majority of people seeking counseling being female. It focuses on societal, cultural, and political causes and solutions to issues faced in the counseling process. It openly encourages the client to participate in the world in a more social and political way.[61]

 

 


Gestalt Therapy (PERLS)

Focuses on the Here-and-Now, the present and how to adapt to it, refusing to search the past for answers about the causes of problems.    It came out of existential therapy in the 1950s. Gestalt techniques might focus on immediate interactions between client and therapist, designed to increase insight and self-awareness—the best-known perhaps being the "empty chair technique"—which are generally intended to explore resistance to "authentic contact," resolve internal conflicts, and help the client complete "unfinished business."[55]

Narrative Therapy

A postmodern therapy

Positive psychology (SELIGMAN)

Positive psychology is the scientific study of human happiness and well-being, which started to gain momentum in 1998 due to the call of Martin Seligman,[62] then president of the APA. The history of psychology shows that the field has been primarily dedicated to addressing mental illness rather than mental wellness. Applied positive psychology's main focus, therefore, is to increase one's positive experience of life and ability to flourish by promoting such things as optimism about the future, a sense of flow in the present, and personal traits like courage, perseverance, and altruism.[63][64] There is now preliminary empirical evidence to show that by promoting Seligman's three components of happiness—positive emotion (the pleasant life), engagement (the engaged life), and meaning (the meaningful life)—positive therapy can decrease clinical depression.[65]

REBT / Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy  (ELLIS)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REBT
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Ellis_(psychologist)
a large portion of therapeutic work is intended to happen outside of session, grew out of cognitive psychology andbehaviorism.

Self Psychology (KOHUT)

common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.

Solution-Focused Therapy

A postmodern therapy in which the Focus is on making changes in how one thinks and acts

Person- or Client-Centered Therapy / Rogerian (ROGERS)

Humanistic therapy in which interventions center on the here-and-now interaction between client and therapist, viewing the whole person and seeking to integrate the whole self (self-actualization). Rogers believed that a client needed only three things from a clinician to experience therapeutic improvement: congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathetic understanding.[47]   As compared to previous negative estimations of the client as sinful, evil and “dirty” or inappropriate Person-centered therapy considers each individual person as already having the inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and self-concept. The mission of the humanistic psychologist is to help the individual employ these resources.  
PRINCIPLE
DESCRIPTION
attempt to put a therapist in closer contact with a person by listening to the person's report of their recent subjective experiences, especially emotions of which the person is not fully aware. For example, in relationships the problem at hand is often not based around what actually happened but, instead, based around the perceptions and feelings of each individual in the relationship. The phenomenal field focuses on "how one feels right now".
referring to the relationship between people, especially the therapist and client; how each feels about it, the interplay between the two affecting each other and the relationship
first-person categories

 

 

 



 

Reality Therapy (GLASSER)



Object Relations Theory

common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic theory‎ (FREUD)

Psychoanalytic theory‎ , Psychodynamic psychotherapy
common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.  The core object of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious—to make the client aware of his or her own primal drives (namely those relating to sex and aggression) and the various defenses used to keep them in check.  Defense mechanisms are completely unconscious. 
DEFENSE MECHANISM
DESCRIPTION
Denial
there is no problem, so no need to make changes (common in substance abuse).
Repression
symptomatic forgetting, amnesia, serving to banish unacceptable (threatening) thoughts or impulses; e.g., threatening thoughts about sexual identity.
Regression
return to infantile thought or behavior.
Idealization
overestimation of the admired characteristics of another.
Therapy focuses on gaining insight into the unconscious mind, in order to resolve problems caused by one’s internal drives (usually unacceptable). Goal is to gain a greater understanding of the motivations underlying one's thoughts and feelings. A psychoanalyst might encourage free association of ideas to gain that understanding. Also important is an examination of the client's transference towards the therapist, defined as the tendency to take unconscious thoughts or emotions about a significant person (e.g. a parent) and "transfer" them onto another person.


Social Learning Theory (BANDURA)

Social learning theory

Community Practice

Tuesday, September 18, 2012

License Exam: Human Behavior in the Social Environment (18 %)

Human Behavior in the Social Environment (18 %)


  • Microsystem: Refers to the institutions and groups that most immediately and directly impact the child's development including: the individual.
  • The FAMILY exists between these two (Micro and Mezzo) systems, as it encompasses the individual and close relatives, which forms one unit.
  • Mezzosystem: Refers to relations beyond the individual client; generally, a group of people related to the individual. E.g., school, religious institutions, neighborhood, and peers.
  • Macrosystem: Describes the culture in which individuals live. Cultural contexts include developing and industrialized countries, socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity. A child, his or her parent, his or her school, and his or her parent's workplace, and different levels of government are all part of a large cultural context. Members of a cultural group share a common identity, heritage, and values. The macrosystem evolves over time, because each successive generation may change the macrosystem, leading to their development in a unique macrosystem.[1]

Theories of Development

 

Developmental Theories

Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.

 


 

See also: Moral development, theory of identity development (Chickering), Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development , Cognitive development, Human development theory, Developmental stage theories, Women's development theory, Behavior analysis of child development, Psychoanalytic theory

 

Psychosexual/Psychodynamic Stages of Development (FREUD),

AGES
STAGE NAME
DESCRIPTION
0-2
Oral
seeks pleasure through mouth (sucking, chewing)
greedy, mistrustful
2-3
Anal
pleasure from excretion (feces)
aggressive
anal retentive
3-6
Phallic
Oedipal/Elektra complex
  • attracted to opposite sex parent
  • jealousy of same sex parent
6-puberty
Latency
sexual impulses overshadowed by need to adapt to environment
drawn to authority figures, avoids relationship with opposite sex parent
puberty onward
Genital
sexual impulses become manifest and directed outward

Relational Cultural Theory / RCT (BAKER-MILLER)   GILLIGAN? 

 


Theory of Cognitive Development (PIAGET)

Stages of Cognitive Development 
AGES
STAGE NAME
DESCRIPTION
0-2
Infancy
Sensorimotor
object permanence (can keep image in mind even if not present), cause & effect awareness, imitates others’ behavior, goal-directed behavior,
Infant behavior follows this cycle: reflexive –> circular reactions –> re-creation –>means-end actions
2-6
Young Childhood
Preoperational
egocentricity, stable verbal & mental representations, single character/quality classification (“I have blonde hair”), symbolic function, animism, intuitive thought, magical beliefs, very simple reasoning
6-12
Middle Childhood
Concrete Operations
conservation of volume & length (reversibility), ordered characterization, uses simple logic beyond reasoning but limited to real objects, able to compare, increased attention span (necessary for formal education)
12+
Adolescence & Young Adulthood, onward
Formal Operations
abstract and symbolic thought, able to think about one’s own thoughts, now uses reasoning skills by rules of formal logic so can compare actual to the ideal and refer to the hypothetical, systematic logic.

(Not all people go past this stage). 

 


Separation-Individuation theory of child development in pre-Oedipal infancy - from 0 to 3 years (MAHLER)

AGES
STAGE NAME
DESCRIPTION
0-1 months
Autistic

4-5 months
Symbiosis

5-36 months
Separation-Individuation

  • Differention 
  • Practicing motor skills
  • Rapproachment
  • Constancy of self and object




Early Attachment Theories (BOWLBY)

Stranger anxiety: fearful of strangers.
Separation anxiety: fear of separation from primary caregivers.
Prolonged separation results in protest, despair, and detachment.

Attachment Styles
John Bowlby developed attachment theory.  Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age. When an infant begins to crawl and walk they begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a secure base to explore from and return to.
Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment; these, in turn, lead to internal working models which will guide the individual's perceptions, emotions, thoughts and expectations in later relationships.[2] Separation anxiety or grief following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a normal and adaptive response for an attached infant. These behaviours may have evolved because they increase the probability of survival of the child.[3]
Infant behaviour associated with attachment is primarily the seeking of proximity to an attachment figure. To formulate a comprehensive theory of the nature of early attachments, Bowlby explored a range of fields, including evolutionary biology, object relations theory (a branch of psychoanalysis), control systems theory, and the fields of ethology and cognitive psychology.[4] 
See also attachment in children on Wikipedia and attachment theory on Psychology.About.com


Attachment Styles (AINSWORTH)

Research by developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth in the 1960s and 70s reinforced the basic concepts of Bowlby's attachment theory, introduced the concept of the "secure base" and developed a theory of a number of attachment patterns in infants: secure attachment, avoidant attachment and anxious attachment.[5]  The Strange Situation was developed to conduct research about attachment styles.

Characteristics of Secure Attachment

Mildly upset by caregiver's absence, seeks contact upon return.
  • Securely attached children exhibit distress when separated from caregivers and are happy when their caregiver returns. Remember, these children feel secure and able to depend on their adult caregivers. When the adult leaves, the child may be upset but he or she feels assured that the parent or caregiver will return.
  • When frightened, securely attached children will seek comfort from caregivers. These children know their parent or caregiver will provide comfort and reassurance, so they are comfortable seeking them out in times of need.

Characteristics of Insecure (Anxious/Ambivalent) Attachment

Disturbed when left with stranger, ambivalent to caregiver's return.
  • Ambivalently attached children usually become very distressed when a parent leaves. This attachment style is considered relatively uncommon, affecting an estimated 7-15% of U.S. children. Research suggests that ambivalent attachment is a result of poor maternal availability. These children cannot depend on their mother (or caregiver) to be there when the child is in need.

Characteristics of Avoidant Attachment

No reaction to caregiver's return. ignores her/him.
  • Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents or caregivers. When offered a choice, these children will show no preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger. Research has suggested that this attachment style might be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers. Children who are punished for relying on a caregiver will learn to avoid seeking help in the future.
Characteristics of Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment

Fearful of caregivers, confused facial expressions, often have been mistreated.
  • By Mary Main[4] , child may cry during separation but avoid the mother when she returns or may approach the mother, then freeze or fall to the floor, or rocking to and fro or repeatedly hitting themselves. Main and Hesse[6] found that most of the mothers had suffered major losses or trauma before or after the birth and had reacted by becoming severely depressed.[5] 

Stages of psychosocial development (ERIKSON)

Stage
Basic Conflict
Important Events
Outcome
AGE STAGE IMPT EVENTS OUTCOME
0-2Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
2-3
Early Childhood
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
3–6
Preschool
Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
6-12
School Age
Industry vs. Inferiority School starts Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
12-20
Adolescence
Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
20-40
Young Adulthood
Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
40-65
Middle Adulthood
Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Parenthood Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
65-death
Maturity
Ego Integrity vs. Despair Retirement and Reflection on Life Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.


  Conflict Theory

  • Draws attention to conflict, dominance, and oppression in social
  • life.
  • Groups and individuals try to advance their own interests over the interests of
  • others.
  • Power is unequally divided, and some social groups dominate others.
  • Social order is based on the manipulation and control of nondominant groups
  • by dominant groups.
  • Lack of open conflict is a sign of exploitation.
  • Social change is driven by conflict, with periods of change interrupting long
  • periods of stability.


Note: Social workers use this theory to understand clients who are experiencing
oppression in some form or another in our capitalist society.

Stages of moral development (KOHLBERG)

 

Ecological theory of development (GIBSON)

Gibson asserted that development was driven by a complex interaction between environmentalaffordances and the motivated humans who perceive them. For example, to an infant, different surfaces "afford" opportunities for walking, crawling, grasping, etc. As children gain motor skills, they discover new opportunities for movement and thus new affordances.[3] The more chances they are given to perceive and interact with their environment, the more affordances they discover, and the more accurate their perceptions become.
Gibson identified four important aspects of human behavior that develop:[4]
  • Agency- self-control, intentionality in behavior
    • Agency is learning to control both one's own activity and external events
    • Babies learn at an early age that their actions have an effect on the environment
    • For example: Babies were observed kicking their legs at a mobile hanging above them. They had discovered their kicking made the mobile move.
  • Prospectivity- intentional, anticipatory, planful, future-oriented behaviors
    • For example: A baby will reach out to try and catch an object moving toward them because the baby can anticipate that the object will continue to move close enough to catch. In other words, the baby perceives that reaching out his/her hand will afford him/her to catch the object.
  • Search for Order- tendency to see order, regularity, and pattern to make sense of the world
    • For example: Before 9 months, infants begin to recognize the strong-weak stress patterns in their native language
  • Flexibility- perception can adjust to new situations and bodily conditions (such as growth, improved motor skills, or a sprained ankle)
    • Examples: Three-month-old infants laying under a mobile had a string attached to their right leg and then to the mobile so that when they moved their leg the mobile would move. When the string was switched to the left legs, the infants would easily shift to moving that leg to activate the mobile.
    • Perception is an on-going, active process.

 

 

Stages of ego development (LOEVINGER)